Marketing Analysis of Red Bull in UK

There are various factors which contribute to the performance or non-performance of a firm in the industry with respect to its marketing. In order that the barriers to successful launching and marketing of the product are removed, the firms adopt different strategies for marketing their products. It is not only the superiority of the product that determines the saleability of a product, but also how it is presented to the ultimate customers that also matters. The marketing strategies enable the firms to educate the customers on the utility as well as quality of the products so that the customers are made to buy and use the product.In this respect the non-traditional strategies for marketing adopted by Red Bull, the multinational energy drink manufacturer has made their product a spectacular success in large number of countries including the United States, where the Company has a very huge market share of the beverages market. This dissertation proposal identifies the key marketing st rategies of Red Bull in UK for a possible dissertation presentation. Marketing Analysis of Red Bull in UK 1. 0 Introduction: In 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz heard about â€Å"tonic drinks† in Asia.These drinks enjoyed wide spread popularity and this gave him the idea to market such functional drinks outside Asia. Red Bull was initially developed in Thailand. Mateschitz bought the rights to market it world-wide excluding Thailand, which continued producing its own brand. Thus in 1984, Mateschitz founded the Red Bull GmbH company. He tweaked the taste of the drink and also changed some ingredients in order to make the drink more effective as an energy booster. He also developed a unique marketing strategy and sold the product in the Austrian market.(Red Bull History) The dissertation proposed to be undertaken will present a comprehensive analytical report on the marketing strategy adopted by Red Bull for its success in the beverage market. 2. 0 Objectives, Scope and Research Metho dology of the Dissertation In order to present a comprehensive study paper on the Marketing Strategies of Red Bull the researcher proposes to make an extensive research in the available literature. To integrate the efforts and to fix the boundaries up to which the research is to be carried, this part of the proposal outlines the scope and objective of the study.The methods for conducting such research are also detailed herein. 2. 1 Objectives of the Study: The proposal for this dissertation paper identifies the following objectives with respect to the chosen topic of the ‘Marketing Analysis of Red Bull in the UK’. The objectives are: †¢ To make a complete analysis of the various marketing strategies adopted by Red Bull for the promotion of its product in the UK. Such analysis will include the elements of marketing as also the advertising concepts that are following by Red Bull as a part of the marketing strategy.†¢ To make a complete report on the efforts take n by the company, in strengthening its distribution processes and brand building as a part of the its marketing strategy †¢ To present a critical analysis of the superiority of the strategies for marketing that is being followed by ‘Red Bull. ’ The objects of this study are proposed to be achieved by a thorough research into the available literature on the company Red Bull and its marketing and distribution strategies.Being a company of recent origin and also because of a spectacular success in the beverages market, there are a number of articles and research studies available about the marketing strategies being adopted by the company. A research in to various professional journals, magazines and technical literature will provide a deep insight in to the topic undertaken by the researcher. There are quite a number of websites available in the internet would also provide the basic information required to complete the study. 2. 2 Scope of the Study:To achieve the ob jectives outlined, this proposal for the dissertation extends the scope of the study to the following areas for an extensive research and analysis: †¢ An in-depth study into the methods of advertising and sales promotion adopted by Red Bull as part of the marketing strategy will be undertaken by the researcher for the purpose of the presenting the dissertation. †¢ The study will extend to the analysis of the various other measures being taken by Red Bull which had the effect of promoting their product. Such measures include the sponsorship of extreme sports events by Red Bull.†¢ It is also proposed to make an analysis of the distinguishing features of the marketing strategies of Red bull. For this purpose, the study will detail an analysis of the impact of the marketing strategies and also evaluate the positive effects of the marketing strategies of the company Red Bull. 2. 3 Research Methodology: Different research methods are to be used to complete the dissertation project. It is important to use both secondary and primary sources of information to achieve the goal and objectives of the study. Overall, the inductive research method is to be used because it is more appropriate for the purpose of the dissertation.Jill and Johnson (2002) write that induction is the ‘construction of explanations and theories about what has been observed†¦ learning by reflecting upon particular past experiences and through the formulation of abstract concepts, theories and generalisations that explain past and predict future, experience’. Due to the practical nature of the chosen topic, ‘Marketing Analysis of Red bull in UK’ induction is more suitable since the author will first collect data, observe, analyse and only then present his findings and conclusions.Additionally, qualitative rather than quantitative research methods will be used because the aim of the project is not to analyse figures or statistics but to observe, interpret and make recommendations if any. The general belief of business research is often thought of as collecting data, constructing questionnaires and analysing data. But it also includes identifying the problem and how to proceed solving it (Ghauri et al. , 1995) Data sources can be described as the carriers of data (information). There are two types of data sources (Ghauri et al. , 1995) 1. Primary data (field) is collected specifically for the research project.This will be in the form of observations and interviews. 2. Secondary data (desk) is collected by others. These include academic and non-academic sources. 2. 4 Qualitative Methods: The qualitative method is ‘one of the two major approaches to research methodology in social science’, which involves ‘investigating participant’s opinions, behaviours and experiences from the informants' points of view’. In contrast with the quantitative research method, the qualitative research method ‘does not rely on quantitative measurement and mathematical models, but instead uses logical deductions to decipher gathered data dealing with the human element’.In qualitative research method non-quantitative’ methods of data collection and analysis are being used (Lofland & Lofland;1984) 2. 5 Quantitative Method: Quantitative method is a research method which depends less on subjective methods but is more focused on the collection and analysis of numerical data. Quantitative research involves analysis of numerical data. According to Burns and Grove, Quantitative research is: â€Å"a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the research question† (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991 p 140).Quantitative research uses the methods which are designed to ensure objectivity and reliability. In this method the researcher is considered external to the actual research and results are expected to be the same, no matte r who conducts the research.. Out of the above discussions on the research methodology, the proposal advocates, inductive and qualitative research methods for the preparation of the dissertation through primary as well as secondary sources. 3. 0 Literature Review: The Company Red Bull has emerged as a big success and is presently selling in large number of countries all over the world.The grand success of the company is mainly due to the novel marketing strategy adopted by the company in promoting its product by following unconventional means of advertising. Bevnet, the website on the beverage news indicates that â€Å"Red Bull is a utility drink to be taken against mental or physical weariness or exhaustion. † In fact this is the philosophy on which the marketing of Red Bull is based. But in spite of the heavy advertising â€Å"Countries like Norway, Denmark and France are so nervous about the can’s contents, they’ve banned the sale of Red Bull. † (CBC N ews) Websites like Snopes.com claim that â€Å"Red Bull energy drink contains a banned, government –manufactured stimulant linked to the formation of brain tumours†. But Red Bull never got perturbed by these negative campaigns. This literature review makes a presentation on the marketing strategies adopted by the company for the promotion of its products in the UK. While discussing the superiority of the marketing strategy of the company, the study also details the efforts of the company in the brand building. 3. 1 Marketing Strategy of Red Bull in UK: Red Bull GmBH is a privately owned Austrian company, with sales of $1640 million in 2003 and 1850 employees.Since introducing Red Bull in 1987, the brunt of investment for the company has been in brand building and quirky marketing. While many companies spend on product diversification, Red Bull has stuck constantly to their single product with its unchanged taste. Red Bull also has unusual distribution. The company reli es heavily on bars and night clubs, where they let people sample the product. They also sponsor alternative sports to promote the drink. Traditional advertising is the last thing that the company invests in. Red Bull has built for itself an image of being a luxury or an identification of a lifestyle.Red Bull claims that â€Å"Research has proven that just one or two cans of Red Bull can help alleviate the effects of tiredness – there is no added benefit in consuming the product in excessive amounts† (BBC. Co. UK). The strong point for the marketing of Red Bull in UK is the strong distribution set up it holds in there. Such stronger distribution is not prevalent in the other markets for Red Bull. Red Bull has spread its wings in the US also. Amy Scott observes â€Å"Popular in Europe for years, Red Bull has been making a slow and steady dent in the American energy drink market.† Money Culture says â€Å"In the US Red Bull is popular with college kids and night c lubbers, whom the company aggressively targets. † 3. 2 Distribution Network of Red Bull in UK: In the year 2002 Red bull dominated 46 percent of the sports drink market in the UK. The company was able to achieve this great a height in the sports drink market, by a strong distribution network it carries in UK which is considered as its best marketing strategy for the promotion of sales. As a start up measure Red Bull approached small distributors and encouraged them to stock and sell the drink Red Bull only.With the successful brand building by the company the distributor would be able to break even within a short period and will become profitable in just less than six months. Then the distributor becomes attached to the selling of the drink and starts to get supplies directly from the company. Similar arrangements are being entered with other forms of selling points like hot night clubs and trendy pubs and bars. Along with supplies of few cases of the drinks, the company suppl ies a Red Bull Branded Cooler and other Promotional materials.Such a kind of distribution approach gives not only a larger visibility for the product but also a fertile ground for the new drinks to emerge victorious against competition. The company also had internal set up with separate units responsible for selected areas. These units will be responsible for creating the distribution networks, communication with the networks, marketing and sales promotion in the designated areas though the developed distribution network. 3. 3 Marketing Mix Strategy of Red Bull: Traditional marketing usually falls into the following four categories which can be controlled.They are product, price, place and promotion and are known as the marketing mix. James Culliton described the marketing manager as a ‘mixer of ingredients’. However the term was popularized in 1964 when Neil H. Borden in an article referred to them as the ‘marketing mix’. (Net MBA) Red Bull how ever has it s own marketing mix strategy. The company spent close to six million pounds on marketing in 1998. The marketing strategy of Red Bull is dependent up on three important aspects which are known as ‘Three Pillar Marketing System’. They are: †¢ The first one is mainstream media advertising.†¢ The second is extreme sports events sponsorship and †¢ Third, by sampling presentations to the consumers 3. 4 Porter’s Five Forces Analysis: The five forces analysis on Red Bull can be summarized as below: Barriers to New Entrants: The beverage drink industry needs a strong distribution network for the distribution of the drinks. The access to the distribution network poses a barrier for any new entrant. Moreover building a brand image needs considerable time and money being spent on the product promotion which also acts as a barrier for new entries in the market. Power of Customers:The force of power of customers acts very strongly on the total beverage market as there are a number of alternative products available and switching to the alternate product doesn’t cost the consumer any extra cost. Hence even a small variation in quality or price will have an immediate impact on the product showing a strong customer power. Power of Suppliers: It cannot be said that the power of suppliers has a major impact on the industry as the major ingredients are not very scarce. Mostly each beverage company has its own formulas that cannot be infringed by any competitor or supplier.The major raw materials are water and some chemicals which are easily available in the market. Hence power of suppliers is not strong force acting on the industry. Substitute Products: There are a plenty of substitutes available in the market in the form of soft drinks that attract the customers through promotions and catchy advertising campaigns. The competition is made stiff with the availability of a number of substitute products. Hence this force needs to be reckoned while assessing the strength of the product within the market. Competitor Rivalry:Already the industry is facing heavy competition among the major players with their established brands. In addition, the forces of ‘powers of customers’ and the ‘availability of substitute products’ also adds up the competition. So in order to achieve growth in the market share and sustain the growth achieved Red Bull should continue to follow all its marketing strategies and novel ideas of retaining old customers and attracting new customers. 5. 0 Structure of the Final Dissertation: The dissertation paper proposes to make a comprehensive report on the Marketing Strategy of the Company Red Bull Gmbh in UK.With the help of the collected information from the various sources, the report will identify the various marketing strategies adopted by Red Bull in UK for its successful launch and growth in the UK market and also critically analyse the strengths and weaknesses of such str ategies. In addition, the study will cover the Competitors’ strengths against Red Bull. In order to have a coherence of thought and clarity the dissertation paper will be structured as below: Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Literature Review Chapter 3 Research Methodology Chapter 4 Findings and Discussion Chapter 5 Conclusion RecommendationReferences Appendices The dissertation will generally follow the flow and substance outlined in the body of this proposal. Wherever necessary additional inputs in the form of excerpts from books and journal articles will be included to increase the informative strength of the concept, although the structure of the dissertation will be maintained as outlined here. 6. 0 Time Table: In order to accomplish the data collection, analysis and summing up being major processes of writing up the dissertation paper, the preparation and presentation of the dissertation report has been proposed to follow the time schedule indicated below:Submi ssion of Dissertation Proposal: 15th May 2007 Approval of the Proposal : 20th May 2007 Collection of Data : 30th May 2007 Collection of resources : 15th June 2007 Preparation of Draft Report : 20th June 2007 Submission of Final Dissertation : 25th June 2007 References: 1. Amy Scott It's Not the Thirsty, But Energy Fiends Who Imbibe Red Bull http://journalism. berkeley. edu/projects/drink/redbull. html 2. Anni Layne Rodgers (2001)It’s a (Red) Bull Market After All Fast Company. comhttp://www. fastcompany. com/articles/2001/10/redbull. html 3. BBC. Co. UK Prison for Red Bull Binge Driver http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/england/norfolk/4634638. stm 4. Bevenet Red Bull Energy Drink http://www. bevnet. com/reviews/redbull/ 5. Burns and Grove cited by Cormack (1991), p. 140, taken form ‘Ways of Approaching Research: Quantitative Design’ in December 2003. 6. CBC News (2005) Raging Bull: Health warnings over popular energy drink being brushed off? http://www. cbc. ca/consu mers/market/files/health/redbull/index. html 7. Drawert. com The Marketing Mix Strategyhttp://www. drawert. com/red_bull_7. php 8. Gobe (2001) Emotional Branding: The New Paradigm for Connecting Brands to People Allworth Press 9. Ghauri, P. , Gronhaug K and Kristianslund I. , (1995) â€Å"Research methods in business studies – a practical guide† Hempstead, Prentice Hall 10. Jill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002). Research methods for managers. 3d ed. London: Sage Publications 11. Lofland, John and Lyn H. Lofland. (1984). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 12. Money Culture The Murketing of Red Bull http://www.robwalker. net/html_docs/redbull. html 13. Nancy F. Koehn, (2001) Brand New: How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers' Trust from Wedgwood to Dell Harvard Business School Press 14. Net MBA The Marketing Mix: The 4 P’s of Marketing http://www. netmba. com/marketing/mix/ 15. Red Bull History A Refreshed Crew is an Efficient Crew http://www. speedace. info/red_bull. htm 16. Saunders, M. , Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2003) â€Å"Research Methods for business students† 3rd ed. , Harlow, Essex, FT Prentice Hall 17. Snopes. com Bull Marketed http://www. snopes. com/medical/potables/redbull. asp

Metropolis and Nineteen Eighty-Four Essay

The question (adapted from 2014 HSC) Rebellion and revolution are ideas which connect Metropolis and Nineteen Eighty-Four. How do these two texts from different contexts reflect changing perspectives on this idea? What it requires Both texts are connected by an exploration of rebellion and revolution that have direct relevance to the composers and their audiences. Compare and contrast the similarities and differences of the way each text portrays rebellion and revolution, taking into account context, audience, language and textual form. Prescribed texts: Metropolis (1929), directed by Fritz Lang (film) Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) by George Orwell (novel) Introduction begins with broader positioning of thesis, then introduces text followed by thesis statement which suggests contextual links When distribution of power in a society is too unevenly distributed, or when one group abuses their power too greatly to the detriment of others, then the oppressed often find a way to rebel or even initiate revolution. In Metropolis and Nineteen Eighty-Four we see depictions of dystopian societies that provoke rebellion or revolution, though as each text was produced during or shortly after significantly different periods of conflict and upheaval, we ultimately see two different attitudes presented, with very different expectations for the outcome of such actions. Topic sentence links to question Direct reference to context Analysis of images & sequences from the text with comparison of examples from text to reinforce topic sentence Concluding statement links back to thesis and introduces next paragraph Throughout history, the most common social structure to provoke revolution is one with hierarchical social classes. Lang’s depiction of divided social classes in a film encouraging sympathy for the lower class has parallels with its time, being produced shortly after the German revolution in which the imperial government was replaced by a form of representative democracy (the Weimar Republic). Lang uses expressionistic imagery, and the strong contrast of light and shade characteristic of German Expressionist Cinema to distinguish the two classes inhabiting the futuristic city. The workers are depicted in uniform black, trudging in synchronised columns into a dark tunnel to their work with the machines. Exiting, they walk at a slower pace suggesting work draws the life out of them, while montages of gears and heavy machinery construct them as part of the machine. This opening sequence is juxtaposed with the light shades and open spaces of the upper city, particularly the Eternal Garden. While workers trudge into dark tunnels, Freder, the protagonist and other sons of Metropolis’ elite run freely in leisure activities beneath towering walls and statues. This clear social divide establishes the familiar pattern for the revolution that is to come. Connects texts with comparative phrase ‘more complex’ Contextual difference between texts Brief summary of text links to topic sentence. Analysis of narrative style continues line of argument Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four explores the more complex scenario of an oppressive regime that maintains power through propaganda, subtle behavioural controls, and fear. Written 20 years after the production of Metropolis, and after the world had already seen the extremes of fascism and totalitarian regimes such as Hitler’s Nazi Party and Stalin’s regime in  Russia, Orwell creates a dystopian society of satirical extremes in which every aspect of an individual’s life, including their thoughts, are the subject of control strategies implemented in the name of the oppressive figurehead known as Big Brother. The close-framed narrative allows the reader to get inside the head of protagonist Winston Smith, a member of the Outer Party of the English Socialist Party in decaying post-revolutionary London, now part of the mega-state of Oceania. His main occupation of rewriting historical records to reflect current party policy represents one extreme manifestation of totalitarian control. Through this activity, Winston introduces us to Doublethink, the ability to hold two contradictory ideas in your head while guiding yourself to believe the one that best fits the principles of Ingsoc, the party doctrine. To even doubt or question Ingsoc is dubbed ‘thoughtcrime’, and pursued ruthlessly by the thought police. Contextual links reinforce thesis Comparison of set texts and concluding statement link back to thesis In a policy reminiscent of the great purges of Stalinist Russia or the Night of the Long Knives in Hitler’s Nazi Party, anyone accused of thoughtcrime is ‘disappeared’ in the night and presumed executed or vaporised. Unlike the clearly divided social classes of Metropolis, the climate of fear in totalitarian London, coupled with the ever-present eye of Big Brother through the telescreens and the slogan ‘Big Brother is Watching You’, encourages people to oppress themselves, as people live in fear of being accused, falsely or otherwise, and executed. Topic sentence establishes commonality between texts before focusing on specific text Brief synopsis, introducing biblical allusions Detailed analysis of imagery and symbolism showing different perspectives linked to thesis Concluding statement links to next paragraph While both texts explore the idea of rebellion and revolution against such oppressive regimes, neither provides a single-sided view of the issue. In Metropolis, the revolution is initiated as a foolhardy act of manipulation by the ruling class. Joh Fredersen and his mad scientist companion, Rotwang, kidnap Maria, the Madonna-like figure who first entices Freder to learn the plight of the workers. After seeing Maria preaching to the workers using the oft-repeated phrase that ‘the mediator between the head and the hands must be the heart’ Frederson and Rotwang replace her with a robotic doppelganger to stir up dissent and rebellion in the workers so that Fredersen can be justified in using greater force against them. The workers who rise to robot-Maria’s call to destroy the machines are depicted as foolhardy, as they unknowingly leave their children behind in peril when their rampage causes flooding. This action symbolises the dangers of revolution, suggesting that in taking control of the present, then the future that the children represent may be sacrificed. Further folly is committed when the workers ignore the warnings of one of their own, Grot, and destroy the heart machine of Metropolis, symbolically rendering the city lifeless and in essence destroying the thing they may have hoped to claim. The epic scale of this revolution, however, is in strong contrast to the nature of rebellion in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Compares texts with ‘instead’ Developing argument with textual references and analysis of motif Analysis of symbolism links to topic sentence Concluding statement includes contextual links Instead of an epic revolution, Winston’s rebellion against the party is ironic in that his rebellion is to pursue acts associated with a ‘normal’ life. Once the audience understands the concepts of thoughtcrime and doublethink, then it becomes apparent how his continued questioning of the  official party story is a dangerous and rebellious act. A key motif that represents Winston’s rebellion is the repetition of the line ‘two plus two equals four’, which the audience recognises as a factual statement, but which comes to symbolise the power of the party’s control mechanisms that they might persuade someone to believe that two plus to equals five. In this way, all of Winston’s rebellions take the form of ordinary activities for the reader – a love affair, consuming real coffee and chocolate – yet the fact they are rebellious defines another aspect of life that the party has coerced and perverted as part of their driv e for power. Winston’s rebellion celebrates life and his actions serve as Orwell’s warning against any system of authority in which everyday actions might be seen as questionable. Directly compares texts with brief analysis of plot and   concluding link to thesis It is in the resolution of the acts of rebellion and revolution that the key differences between the texts emerge. Where Metropolis ends with a sense of hope (the liberated Maria unites Grot and Federsen through the empathic figure of Freder), Nineteen Eighty-Four’s final line in which Winston proclaims his love for Big Brother is seen as a final, crushing defeat that suggests no hope exists in such a system of power. Conclusion summarises how the question has been answered, with suggestions for further lines of inquiry arising from this essay In conclusion, it is possible to view these two texts as counterpoints to each other. While still recognising the dangers of revolution, Metropolis reflects the sense of hope that is ultimately represented by such an action while Nineteen Eighty-Four shows what such hopes can easily become. It is not insignificant then that Orwell wrote his novel after fighting directly against the fascists that would arise out of the German experience, and that he throws into question the value of the revolutionary spirit and whether or not it has ever produced an ideal, long-term outcome.

Seven Personal Qualities Found in a Good Leader

How often have you heard the comment, â€Å"He or she is a born leader?† There are certain characteristics found in some people that seem to naturally put them in a position where they're looked up to as a leader. Whether in fact a person is born a leader or develops skills and abilities to become a leader is open for debate. There are some clear characteristics that are found in good leaders. These qualities can be developed or may be naturally part of their personality. Let us explore them further. 1. A good leader has an exemplary character. It is of utmost importance that a leader is trustworthy to lead others. A leader needs to be trusted and be known to live their life with honestly and integrity. A good leader â€Å"walks the talk† and in doing so earns the right to have responsibility for others. True authority is born from respect for the good character and trustworthiness of the person who leads. 2. A good leader is enthusiastic about their work or cause and also about their role as leader. People will respond more openly to a person of passion and dedication. Leaders need to be able to be a source of inspiration, and be a motivator towards the required action or cause. Although the responsibilities and roles of a leader may be different, the leader needs to be seen to be part of the team working towards the goal. This kind of leader will not be afraid to roll up their sleeves and get dirty. 3. A good leader is confident. In order to lead and set direction a leader needs to appear confident as a person and in the leadership role. Such a person inspires confidence in others and draws out the trust and best efforts of the team to complete the task well. A leader who conveys confidence towards the proposed objective inspires the best effort from team members. 4. A leader also needs to function in an orderly and purposeful manner in situations of uncertainty. People look to the leader during times of uncertainty and unfamiliarity and find reassurance and security when the leader portrays confidence and a positive demeanor. 5. Good leaders are tolerant of ambiguity and remain calm, composed and steadfast to the main purpose. Storms, emotions, and crises come and go and a good leader takes these as part of the journey and keeps a cool head. 6. A good leader, as well as keeping the main goal in focus, is able to think analytically. Not only does a good leader view a situation as a whole, but is able to break it down into sub parts for closer inspection. While keeping the goal in view, a good leader can break it down into manageable steps and make progress towards it. 7. A good leader is committed to excellence. Second best does not lead to success. The good leader not only maintains high standards, but also is proactive in raising the bar in order to achieve excellence in all areas. These seven personal characteristics are foundational to good leadership. Some characteristics may be more naturally present in the personality of a leader. However, each of these characteristics can also be developed and strengthened. A good leader whether they naturally possess these qualities or not, will be diligent to consistently develop and strengthen them in their leadership role.

Advantages & Disadvantages of JavaScript Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advantages & Disadvantages of JavaScript - Essay Example In order to enhance the aspect of functions performed by any website, JavaScript is hugely adopted because of its ease. For instance, creating dynamic effects on visual grounds, calculation of data that are available on web pages with the ability to access the data offered by external party are among the diversified features of JavaScript.If advantages on the client side by JavaScript is taken into account, the personalization of coding and its execution from the processor of user rather than from the server of the web pages is quite beneficial. The ultimate outcome as a result of the code being executed in such a manner is related to usage of minimum bandwidth. The bandwidth gets saved up to maximum level yet the code is executed at a fast rate on the processor of user. During web searches, the code gets executed directly from the client and the task is done at almost instant rate rather than transfer of the codes from servers of web to the computer of user which would have been tim e consuming (Fraley, 2004, p. 6).There are disadvantages of JavaScript too. .One of the main disadvantages of JavaScript on client side is the issue of privacy of one’s data. There are various malicious codes that are executed along with the normal codes when any task is performed by the user on web that results in the exposure and exploitation of one’s personal data. Many people do not prefer JavaScript due to security reasons. Personal pictures, personal videos and personal data are at stake.

Skills Overview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Skills Overview - Essay Example Now, I am already oriented about how business and its environment works albeit I still have to learn about it compared before where I did not even have a clue how business makes money. I could say that I improved my cognitive skills because I now have a grasp about complex theories which I used to find very difficult before. Also, I used to struggle finishing to read a book but now I am already used to reading a whole book completely owing to my improved cognitive skills. Analytical/critical/judgement skills thinking skills I believe that the University stresses this more compared in high school. When I entered the university, I only have the skills taught to me back in high school and never questioned if these concepts were valid. In the university, the teachers always encourage us to think analytically/critically to anything that that we learn. We were even ask to challenge the theories that are being discussed and is always ask what we think about our lessons. In the process, I le arn how to evaluate the lessons taught and compare it with other things that I learned so that I can develop my own insight about it. I carried this mindset in other dimension of my life such as evaluating the things that I encounter. For example, I no longer take news as they are or the opinions of the celebrity which I used to readily believe. I now examine their authenticity by checking their facts and cross checking it with the opinions of the experts. This is an exercise that we always do in the university which is why it is now part of my system. Writing Skills In business and in almost all of our class, we are required to write in a scholarly manner and I have to admit that I still have a lot to learn despite my improvement since I got into the university. There are a lot of ways on how to present ideas and I must say that I am still in the process of learning how to write better. My personal Development Plan Learning never stops and we should always learn new things for us t o continue to grow especially in today’s fast changing world. In my line of chosen career which is business, there are skills that I bear in mind that I need to develop so that I could achieve my goal when I have graduated the university and formally start my chosen career. These skills are; Communication skills In business, it is necessary for us to communicate effectively be it to our superiors, peers, customers or outside agencies and it is usually done in writing. These communications are not only letters but presentations, reports; needless to say, I have to be good in expressing myself both orally and in written language. Business entails presentations and to talking to people so I have to be good in oral communication. But this is not sufficient, I also need to make reports and written communication so I really have to be good in business writing as well. My plan in improving my communication skills both orally and in written language is to constantly practice. Communi cation skills is no different from other skill based activities like sport or playing musical instrument, we have to practice to improve. With regard to communication skills, I do dry runs before making a presentation several times so that I would be more effective with my presentation. With regard to my writing skills, I am more systemic in my approach because writing is quite a challenge. I first do idea mapping, then make an

Sexuality is said to be both sacred and ordinary. Would there be any Essay

Sexuality is said to be both sacred and ordinary. Would there be any problems with persons understanding sex only as sacred, or - Essay Example This can be estimated from the fact that in our society, 4 per cent to 5 per cent of the juvenile girls are raped by their fathers, 33 per cent to 50 per cent of the women become the victims of completed or attempted rape and 1 in every 4 girls and 1 in every 9 boys experiences sexual abuse once in the childhood. Thus, criminals are using sex as a major means of violence in the society. A vast majority of women that become the victims of rape tend not to disclose the offence to their relatives or police with the fear of embarrassment and shame. They think that if they do file a case against the offender, it would highlight their sexual identity. Sexual abuse leaves the victim with scars in the mind for the whole life and is one of the major causes of depression among people in America. Much of the widespread sex-based violence can be attributed to the consideration of sex as a very sacred topic that can not be discussed openly. Such an understanding of sex is providing the criminals with innumerable opportunities of creating violence. Besides, consideration of sex only as ordinary and non-sacred topic is no less harmful for the society. This is so because consideration of sex as an ordinary matter is just not consistent with the level of secrecy and personalization ingrained in it. Sex essentially brings two people extremely close to each other physically. If sex is considered ordinary, people would be encouraged to doing sex in public which is against all standards of religion, ethics and humanity. Animals do sex in open. It is the superiority of mankind that makes human sex in public a very heinous idea.

Cinematic Piracy in China Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cinematic Piracy in China - Research Paper Example By mid 2000, global statistics estimated that China was the leading producer and promoter of counterfeit movies, music, and software in the world. Statistically, at least ninety one percent of China’s desktop computers have pirated origins (Pang, 2004). Sequentially, China registers the highest counterfeiting of entertainment products in a wide range. Moreover, the estimated value of these counterfeit goods lied between nineteen and twenty four billion in 2003. In China, the expertise at which piracy occurs presents a challenge in determining the counterfeit and the genuine intellectual property. In essence, intellectual property is the exclusive right and protection given to creations of the mind against duplication of the idea that is becomes ones asset. This paper will discuss why cinematic piracy has become so widely spread in China and present the alarming statistics at which this trend continues to surfice. Background information on cinematic piracy in China Cinematic pi racy involves both the act of production and buying illegal copies (Larkin, 2004). The pirated video compact discs (VCDs) and DVDs enter the distribution channels in China retailing at exceptionally low prices that end up affecting the anticipated profit margins. The sale of these productions is at cheaper prices to which the original film maker may never get a return on their investment. Surprisingly, Hollywood movies appear in fake forms in China streets, before their official launch into theaters. In other cases, the circulation of pirated movies in China begins a few days after the premier entry into theaters. Some cinematic pirates often make use of hand-held video cameras in theaters during a movie premier to capture the entire movie. A camera copy is the name given to the movies produced in this manner. The picture quality is relatively of inferior aspects hence making the product undesirable. Many vendors of these pirated copies dupe the public in to buying them without actu ally communicating on the quality of the copies. However, the buyers of these products serve as equal accomplices in to this crime because they buy cheaply. These offenders then proceed to make copies in Asia, and in a few days, they gain entry into the market. Other copyright offenders rely on quality screeners in order to produce copies of Hollywood movies. Sometimes the copies come out in a quality that is easily confused with the original. The question that lingers on the minds of many innovators of products is whether China will seize from being an imitator or will it be an innovator by itself. In essence, China has embraced both of these traits in that it is an innovator and pirate of intellectual intelligence. Effects of cinematic piracy On the contrary, piracy may serve as deterrence to much needed innovativeness, but has not been the case for China. This is because China does not protect the right to accrue profits from copyrighted material hence diminishing the urge to cre ate and be innovative (Beam, 2012). The secret lies in the ability to toy with the consumers mind for them into believing that a pirated product is the same as the original product. This is irrespective of the name change and minimal alteration to the original name. Ironically, the market tends to think that the product remains same in terms of quality, but they are not because of their counterfeit nature. Funny enough, market

Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Religion - Essay Example This creates the essence for various rituals, libations, cultures, behaviors and lifestyle as observed by different religious traditions. It is worth noting, the fact that there is no single religious tradition that can claim to have fully understood this mystery of the origin of life. This has created superstitious values systems and opinions that have eventually seen these traditional religions differ, based on locality, intellectual background and levels as well as on human tribes and races. Religion, as stated by Harvey (2000) is â€Å"any form of belief, about deity, often involving rituals, a code of ethics, and a philosophy of life†p.89. It is the pulling together of various cultures opinions and viewpoints that relate humanity to the spiritual world. However, any spiritual believe or viewpoint uphold by an individual is remarkably different from religion. This is because religion has the public outlook, where many people subscribe to such a faith. Thus, religion can si mply be said to be a belief and/or a practice. Therefore, religion can be expressed in term of myths. These are kinds of stories explaining why a group subscribes to a certain faith.

Health care payment reform in AbuDhabi Research Paper

Health care payment reform in AbuDhabi - Research Paper Example Health care facilities in the country are currently offering free health care for Abu Dhabi residents as well as being covered by a new comprehensive health care insurance program. This program is financed by a shared cost of the employer and the employees as the number of doctors per 100,000 (annual average, 1990–99) is 181, (Rosenau, 2000) Other developments include a state of-the-art general hospital opened in Abu Dhabi with a projected bed capacity of 143, a trauma unit, and the first home health care program in the UAE as on the other hand there are efforts to attract those individuals who had preferred medical treatment abroad for serious medical care. This treatment Centre seeks to offer a hospital free zone that will offer international-standards, advanced private health care and provide an academic medical training center; On the other hand, there has been the introduction of a mandatory health insurance scheme and the transitioning of hospital financing towards revenue-based model necessitated thinking about how to create price transparency and better align incentives between all parties involved, (Yeung, 2012). Health expenditures are the most predominant expense in government spending and the more the population grows, the more private sectors will become a component part of the health system and the increasing need for private health insurance to cover expenses paid directly or enable access to private health care e.g., reforms and privatization in Spain, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA. There is also a growth of specialized health players in private sectors as well as the public healthcare spending in OECD countries Long-term sustainability challenge has cropped, (Yeung, 2012) The total healthcare expenditure already accounts for an average 9% of GDP (2008) among OECD countries as the public sources constitute majority of the spending and are already facing challenges in

Engineering Project Management Essay Example for Free

Engineering Project Management Essay .) Why do most people get the order of development that is from objectives/constrains to scope, back the front? Does it means that they don’t know what they are doing, but rather they are going to through motions in a mechanical/ unit thinking fashion? Or are the people unaware of the components of systematic problem solving and how fit together? Answer: Most people do prepare to get the order of development that is from objectives/ constrain to scope, /back front because people wants it to have the answer of their needs and wants as directly to the point or succinctly enough to the correct answer. People seem to be very economical and time conscious as well. Also right order hinders to focus on objectives why one should make interest to the order. To people whom did order that is from objective know a lot if the program or has already that vast knowledge of the program. Related studies of the brand and Brand Communications: Understanding the relationship between consumers and brand is crucial to differentiation in word products as well as to communicate effectively with them. This course is devoted to its analysis to what the brand mean to the consumers through different career and lecture, including models that give clues on issues as investment needs and communication disciplines better suited to reach effective marketing targets. Hence, showing above examples give the idea that customer has a very good background and knowledge of the program order. Thus mostly they should have to see to it that the orders they will aim to suit their knowledge or facts they learn beforehand to ensure better development they sought to aim. The users awareness are very much acquainted with their responsibilities that’s why they are looking on orders that is sought to direct needs they wanted to have. Likewise, people all knows much the suitable problems that are suited to the systematic answer to the problem. There is no doubt have the ignorance of people to those people ordered such program. Mostly they do have already the knowledge to reach out the needs of the problem for themselves. Q2.) Consider a project with which you have been involved and consider the time horizons of the program involve. How many programs were necessary and what time horizon was used in each program? Answer: Upper level program simplified example a project involving a conference. (Work parcel names have been abbreviated because of spaces limitations – work items are simplified.) For this program example, needs to consider the time horizon involve. Considering the presentation the representation of the program having overall program, which is the major work, showed also major parcels, milestone and key resources. Then the next presentation is for a medium range program showing details over the next shorter program that follows then the daily program. By looking at the presentation there was four programs involve and can be taken into consideration each of which has different time horizon depending on the task or degree of emphasis the program to consider. There is that time constrain from the highest level down to next level. The time allotment differs like from highest rank that needs a biggest time allotted, followed by the next higher time consumption then next followed by the lowest time allotment. In the lower level, the time is given daily task compared to other program as well. Now it must to see to it that at different levels of program it has also different time horizon so that we have to make good at the start since there was that saying, the first impression last. Meaning, that the starting work program should be done perfectly so that it may issue along with the preliminary project program, a tendency will occur that entire project will develop into a detailed execution and a well-planned program. Q3.) Why do you believed there have been no negligence action brought against project managers? Do all project managers act in a reasonable industry accepted fashion? Do all project finish on schedule under cost and to better than expected quality? Answer: Project managers belong to the senior management program in a higher level. Owner per see took all the risk provided by the company. So no one dares to questions negligence action brought against the manager since he or she was the brain of the system. All the decision and moves of the manager should all followed by the subordinates. Well for humanitarian reason there were a case also that subordinates can react bad action or decision made by the manager. So probably the subordinate go against the manager and questions his personal actions maybe. So tendency the subordinates will questions the credibility of the manager. Well, we can take into accounts that manger is a human being so he has or she has that weaknesses too. But a fact that the managers are the one manages the company; the subordinates in humanitarian reason can right away react to what her or his fashion to go against the manager. Not all project finish on scheduled time of deadline were all under cost and to better than that of expected quality. If in case such situation to occur then that is one of its kind to cherish and to prioritized if ever the next project will come, it will be the best model or should to follow in the future activity. But usually if the project finishes under cost, it is expected that the results sometime below or maybe just meet the quality that is expected to come. No wonder that cost and expenses will goes hand in hand in quality products. Now a days seldom or none at all you could find under cost that has good quality. The reason is the fact that economy underwent in all aspect of society. Q4.) Why are people found it hard to define the scope and detail of the work involved in project management? Answer: People find it hard to define the scope and details of the work involve in project management since in every company has its own principle of management. In each company there is varied principle that is injected in the management of the company. The reasons of these are depending on the needs and interest of the company scope of preparation. So for us people who are just followers or subordinates just depend on the outcomes but not the makers of such. Not all people knows or knowledgeable enough to the process and what’s was going on the company itself. There is that so called hidden documents that are not supposed to be displayed on public for security purpose and reason. The same a person even how one so introvert to showed what was her or his personality will be to the public but still she or he has that attitude that only him or her knows better. Such characteristics are also present in every company to be a successful one. It should be the case to be done to hide some documents coz might be other program or company will imitate the success of one company so the identity might be duplicated and that identity of the company can be protected as well. Q5.) Tender documents usually comprise the following,   . All notice(s) to tender . All condition of tendering (including form of tender) . The general conditions of contract (to be) . The special contract (to be) . The specification . The drawings . The schedule of rates (prices)/bill of quantities of rates (if any) * List other special arrangement of which you are aware that sometimes hold during the tender period? Answer: The period of adjustment is very crucial period. This is called the tender period in which starting transaction will be done tenderly. But if with stress and plenty of commands will make it very confusing on the part of the doer. So at tender period all notices should be imparted one at a time. No overlapping and should be short and concise so confusion will be avoided. Conclusions and generalization are made to be clear and worth discussing, so the doer can easily grasp and understand the matter. Other special arrangement to considered at tender period is to put into details the rules and policies that imposed in the process so it will goes smoothly along with the rest of accompanying rules and regulation posted. Primarily these rules and regulations must be clear and understood well by every member in the company. Q6.) Is it possible to have one section of the tender documents purely related to administrative matters, and one section purely related to contractual matters/or they necessarily linked. Explain your view. Answer: In my own view, there must be a separate confidential section of tender documents that is for purely related to administrative matter and separate to contractual matter. Not necessarily that the two tender contacts link together but both must only parallel to each other. The reason why they should be separated because per records must have their own identity for the purpose but has its only one aims for the success of the project. Matters that is confidential, not proper to discuss openly to the public for discussion or what so ever. That confidential matter is only good for inner transaction that only the one concerned knows the secrecy of the documents but it should all documents parallel for the purpose of improvements and success of the program as well. In other words, it is by virtue of the fact that mangers are organizationally compelled to make a difference to the resources they combined via performing the function of planning, organizing, leading, controlling, etc., that certainly characteristics of the managing task. Lets take into consideration an example of principles. â€Å" Neo-Marxist perspective on management has emphasized the centrality of management contract in securing transformation of labor power to actual labor in context of capitalist relation of production† ( Ackroyd, Stephen. Page 38.). Reference: Realist Perspective on Management and Organization Contribution. Stephen Ackroyd- editor, Steve Fleetwood, Publisher :Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year; 2000. Page no. 38.

Strategies to Control Exposure to Harmful Substances

Strategies to Control Exposure to Harmful Substances Control of exposure to substances harmful to health by the UK government was first implemented during the late 19th century (Piney 2001). Today, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) assessments are used to address the risk associated with chemicals and how they may be used safely. This report considers three cleaning products which are used on a daily basis in the office environment in which I work: Freshline Bleach, Lifeguard 3 Way Toilet Cleaner and Mr Muscle Professional Kitchen Cleaner. COSHH assessments for these products are included in Appendix I. 1. Chemicals used in office cleaning products and the processes involving these products The three cleaning products assessed in this report contain a number of different chemicals. The components of each of these products are listed in Table 1, together with their toxicity, targets organs/organ systems and the recommended occupational exposure limits for these chemicals. The main targets organs for the chemicals in these products are the eyes and skin but the respiratory and digestive systems may also be affected if these products are inhaled or ingested. Freshline Bleach is used for general cleaning and disinfecting purposes. In the office, it is used dilute for cleaning floors (e.g. corridors and toilet floors). A working solution is typically prepared in a mop bucket using tap water for dilution and the floors mopped. At the end of the procedure, the dilute solution is emptied down the drain and both mop bucket and mop rinsed in clean tap water. This bleach is also used neat for cleaning toilets and drains into which it is poured straight from the 5 litre container. Lifeguard 3 Way Toilet Cleaner is a cleaner, disinfectant and deodorizer that is used in the office to remove limescale and uric acid deposits on toilet bowls and urinals. The product is typically poured neat into the toilet bowl/urinal from the 1 litre container. Mr Muscle Professional Kitchen Cleaner is a cleaning spray used to clean all kitchen work surfaces, utensils and other equipment. This is sprayed neat onto surfaces and then wiped off using a disposable cloth. 2. Potential hazards for workers during handling of chemicals The COSHH assessment included in Appendix I identifies the risk associated with the chemicals in each of the three cleaning products. There is the potential for all workers (both cleaning staff and office workers) to be exposed to these chemicals in the workplace. Cleaning staff are at the greatest risk of exposure at they will be handling the concentrated products. There is a risk of splashback from the bleach and toilet cleaner when pouring this into the toilet. There is also the potential for individuals to come into contact with undiluted chemicals during disposal of empty containers. Workers using bleach may inhale vapour if this is used in a poorly-ventilated area. If cleaning cloths are used for multipurposes with a variety of different cleaning products without being properly rinsed between uses, there is also the potential for reactions to take place between chemicals in the different products which could be hazardous for workers. For example, if bleach comes into contact with acid, toxic gas may be liberated which could then be inhaled. There is also the potential for chemical reactions to take place if different cleaning products are used together, e.g. when cleaning toilets. 3. Monitoring workplace exposure and minimising the risk of exposure The COSHH assessment identified Freshline Bleach and Lifeguard 3 Way Toilet Cleaner as medium hazards and Mr Muscle Professional Kitchen Cleaner as low hazard. For both the bleach and toilet cleaner in particular, it is essential that correct safety precautions are taken during the handling, use and disposal of these products. Monitoring workplace exposure to the chemicals in these products is difficult and levels of exposure cannot be measured qualitatively. Regular inspections of the office kitchen and toilets will detect spillages that have not been cleaned up thoroughly which could mean workers are exposed to higher than normal levels of concentrated products. Keeping a record of the quantities of each product used (e.g. by asking staff to complete a log when they take a new container) would provide an indicator of the amounts being used within the office as a whole on a monthly/annual basis which may provide some indicator of occupational exposure levels. There is a designated health and safety officer within the office but regular inspections are not conducted and no formal training sessions are held to ensure that new staff joining the company are familiarised with correct office safety procedures. A number of measures can be taken to minimise the risk of exposure. The COSHH assessments for all chemicals should be kept in a place where they can be found easily and all workers should familiarise themselves with these assessments and be aware of first aid measures and correct procedures for cleaning up spillages and disposal of solid waste. Training sessions for staff should be arranged if necessary. All workers using cleaning products must wear suitable personal protective equipment as detailed in the COSHH assessment (e.g. eye protection when working with concentrated toilet cleaner and eye protection, PVC/rubber gloves and protective overalls when working with concentrated bleach). Regular inspections would monitor whether correct working procedures are being followed and written reports from each inspection would provide a record over time. In case of spillage of concentrated bleach or toilet cleaner on clothing, bags should be available to contain the soiled article(s) of clothing to send for cleaning and these should be clearly labelled with the hazard. PVC or rubber gloves should be replaced regularly and should be rinsed well with water if they have come into contact with concentrated solutions of bleach or toilet cleaner ensuring that no door handles or other surfaces are touched and contaminated with concentrated product. All spillages should be cleaned up thoroughly to minimise the risk of workers exposure to concentrated product and both spilt product and any solid waste associated with the spillage disposed of safely. The risk of splashing is reduced by using spray containers (as in the case of Mr Muscle Professional Kitchen Cleaner), rather than the larger bottles or containers which hold the bleach and toilet cleaner, and less of the product is likely to be used with these types of containers. If concentrated bleach or toilet cleaner is spilt on toilet seats, it is important that this is cleaned up thoroughly to minimise the risk of skin contact. In all cases where concentrated bleach has been used in sinks, this should be rinsed thoroughly with copious amounts of water to reduce the risk of workers’ exposure and also to ensure safe disposal of the product. Previously, cleaning staff used to clean the office in the early evening when many staff were still working. This meant that neat bleach or toilet cleaner would be poured into toilet bowls or urinals and workers may then wish to use them, which significantly increased the likelihood of exposure to concentrated products. We have now req uested that cleaning staff work later in the evening two nights per week when staff have already left and it is only on these occasions that the toilets are cleaned. Cloths used for cleaning the kitchen should be rinsed thoroughly at the end of each use and not left where workers or even food could come into contact with concentrated products. Empty containers should be rinsed out well with water before disposal and the top of the container should be replaced to minimise the risk of individuals (i.e. office workers or waste disposal workers) coming into contact with undiluted chemicals. Products should be used in a well-ventilated area, particularly in the case of bleach. The office kitchen is poorly ventilated and has no windows that can be opened but the windows in the toilets can be opened before using products in these areas. Correct storage of products will minimise the risk of workers’ exposure to chemicals. These products should ideally be stored in a locked storage area for which only suitable trained staff have access, and all products stored in original, closed containers, kept upright, in a cool place away from direct sunlight. 4. Plan of action for improvement An audit showed that many staff were not aware of the risks from chemicals in cleaning products used in this office and that correct procedures for their safe use, disposal and storage were not being followed. Following this, a number of new measures have been, or will be, implemented. Training sessions have been arranged for all existing office staff to ensure they are familiar with COSHH assessments and safety procedures and these will be repeated when new staff join the company. Ensuring cleaning staff are correctly trained poses a greater challenge as these staff are recruited from an external agency who are responsible for their own training and quality control; however, the health and safety officer has worked with this agency to ensure that staff are familiar with safety procedures. No sand or other inert absorbable material was available in the office in case of large spillages. This has now been obtained and all staff are familiar with where this is stored. A small, lockable cupboard was previously used for storing cleaning products but this was sometimes left unlocked. Furthermore, containers of kitchen cleaner were left in the cupboard under the sink in the kitchen close to where clean crockery is stored, and toilet cleaner was also frequently left in toilet cubicles. The COSHH assessment identified that Lifeguard 3 Way Toilet Cleaner should be kept away from chlorine-releasing agents and sodium hypochlorite; therefore bleach and toilet cleaner should not be stored together in the same cupboard as there is a risk that they may come into contact (e.g. in case of spillage). A second, lockable cupboard suitable for the storage of these chemicals will be purchased with one month and the two products stored separately. Staff will be trained to ensure that no products are left lying around in the kitchen or toilet areas and are returned to the storage area after each use, which should always be kept locked. The disposable cloths used for cleaning the kitchen were previously being rinsed with water after use, left to dry and re-used. In order to minimise the risk of exposure of office staff to the cleaning product, these cloths will now be disposed of after a single use. Protective overalls worn by cleaning staff will be washed on a weekly basis and PVC/rubber gloves changed regularly. Regular inspections are now carried out by the office health and safety officer on a monthly basis to ensure correct procedures are being followed. Conclusions Everyday cleaning products used in the office can pose a potential hazard to workers. It is therefore important that COSHH assessments are performed to assess the risk posed by the chemicals contained within these products. All workers should be aware of the correct procedures for the safe handling, use and disposal of these chemicals and should take the necessary precautions to minimise their risk of exposure (e.g. through use of personal protective equipment where appropriate). Reference list Health and Safety Executive 2007. List of approved workplace exposure limits. Retrieved 26th September 2008 from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/table1.pdf Piney, M. 2001, ‘OELs and the effective control of exposure to substances hazardous to health in the UK (version 3)’. Retrieved 26th September 2008 from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/oel.pdf The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory 2008, Chemical and other safety information. Oxford University. Retrieved 26th September 2008 from: http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk Bibliography Health and Safety Executive 2008. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health – COSHH. Retrieved 26th September 2008 from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/ Health and Safety Executive 2008. COSHH: A brief guide to the regulations. Retrieved 26th September 2008 from: http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg136.pdf Table 1. Chemicals used in office cleaning products: toxicity, target organs and recommended exposure limits (Health and Safety Executive 2007). Assessment Reference: Date:26th July 2008 Review Date: 25th July 2009 1) Assessor Details [Client: please complete Section 1] 2) Process Description [Client: I’ve included all three products in one assessment – you may prefer to put each on a separate COSHH assessment pro forma] [Client: the codes for both risk phrases and safety phrases are standard for COSHH assessments and were taken from The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University website, accessed from: http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/] 3) Specific Considerations 4) Hazard Category I have familiarised myself with the risks created and safe working practices during the use and handling of chemicals. I shall adhere to COSHH regulations and safe laboratory practices as explained to me during the COSHH assessment. Signature: Date:

The Meaning of Wine in Egyptian Tombs: Article Analysis

The Meaning of Wine in Egyptian Tombs: Article Analysis The find of Tutankhamun’s tomb is significant in its being one of a few intact royal tombs to have been discovered in Egypt thus far. Many of the artifacts in the tomb were spectacular, but the three amphorae found in Tutankhamun’s burial chamber raised many questions. Maria Rosa Guasch-Janà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s article looks at the amphorae found within the tomb, and attempts to answer some of the questions surrounding them. Using inscriptions found in the tomb as well as residue analysis, Guasch-Janà © is able to identify the wines and argue for their symbolic meaning in the context of not only Tutankhamun’s era, but wine in general throughout Egyptian history. This paper will provide a summary of the article â€Å"The meaning of wine in Egyptian tombs: the three amphorae from Tutankhamun’s burial chamber†, as well as identify the problem in trying to solve the claim. This paper will also identify the methods used to solve the claim as well as state how t his article might be useful to others with related research. According to the article, upon discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun 23 amphorae were found placed within the annexe chamber of the tomb. Within the burial chamber itself, 3 more amphorae were discovered appearing to have been intentionally placed towards the west, east and south of Tutankhamun’s sarcophagus. This find therefore caused the author to ask: â€Å"why were these wine jars not stored in the annexe chamber with the rest of the wine, but placed instead in the burial chamber?†, â€Å"Does the position of the three wine jars have any meaning?†. Along with this, the author notes that no amphora was found on the northern side of the chamber. As a result, Guach-Janà © identifies the purpose of this article as being â€Å"to use the residue to identify the nature of the wine that had been in the amphorae and investigate their symbolism in the context of what is known[1]† in Egyptian mythology. According to Howard Carter, there were signs of intruders in the tomb but little damage was actually done to the tomb. Although the seals on the wine jars had been broken, the amphorae were found to have had residue wine left inside. Along with residue, hieratic inscriptions on the jars showed differences in the vintage, origin and production of the wines. This evidence may be used to identify signs of trade and distribution in Egyptian society. Using chromatography mass spectrometry, it was determined that a white wine was present in the eastern amphorae, a red wine in the western amphorae, and a red grape wine with elaborate preparation marked â€Å"shedeh† was present in the southern amphorae. According to Guach-Janà ©, the shedeh was a much appreciated beverage with a high value and as a result, Guach-Janà © is led to ask â€Å"Was this for symbolic reasons?† In order to answer the many questions, Guasch-Janà © explores the historical background of wine in ancient Egypt. According to the author, large quantities of storage jars were found in Egyptian tombs at Abydos and Saqqara and â€Å"were interpreted to be for the sustenance of the deceased in the afterlife[2]† as funerary offerings to the spirit of the dead. Tombs dating to the Middle Kingdom depict offerings of wine made to the dead and placed in front of the tomb’s false door from which the buried person was supposed to emerge, thus showing evidence of a belief in resurrection. Guach-Janà © further states that in ancient Egypt, wine was mainly consumed by the royal family and the upper classes, and served as an offering to the gods by the pharaoh or priests in a daily temple ritual. In order to further understand the ancient Egyptian behaviour, the author ventures to understand the symbolism of wine in ancient Egypt. Guach-Janà © employs cognitive archaeology in or der to understand the Egyptian behaviour and attitude towards wine. By looking at cosmology and ancient Egyptian mythology, this understanding becomes more fervent. According to ancient Egyptian mythology, the god Osiris was known as being the â€Å"lord of wine†. The grape harvests coincided with the Nile flood and the red colour of the Nile and as a result[3], grapes became the symbol of resurrection. Furthermore, the god Ra’s transformation from the red of sunset to the yellow of sunrise may be an explanation for the amphorae. Guach-Janà © suggests that the positioning of amphorae of red wine in the west and white wine in the east of the burial chamber may be seen as part of the ritual which symbolises the king’s journey into the afterlife; the red wine at sunset and the white wine at sunrise. To explain the amphorae placed to the south, and the lack of an amphorae to the north, Guasch-Janà © notes that in the southern sky there are stars that rise and set. According to mythology, the critical part of the king’s renewal after death took place when the union of Ra and Osiris occurred. As a result, the Guach-Janà © suggests that the supply of shedeh on Tutankhamun’s south wall may have been intended to strengthen the king in his trip through the southern sky. Guach-Janà © employs Ethnoarchaeology by retracing Egyptian history to the Eighteenth Dynasty and analysing the behaviour of the people of the time whose beliefs were centered upon the course of the sun and asserted that all life was created by the sun. This is represented through finds such as tombs in Amarna where everything is oriented towards the east. Furthermore, finds, such as artifacts found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, show great attention to the combination of Ra and Osiris. According to mythology, Osiris became Ra at night and becomes that constellation of Orion in the southern sky and in the morning Ra arises again. This belief is represented in a text on the exterior of Tutankhamun’s shrine which describes the rejuvenation of the sun in the east by the figure of the unified Ra-Osiris. As a result, the shedeh found on the south wall may be representative of the pharaoh’s journey whilst no wine was needed on the north. Guasch-Janà © concludes liquid offerings may have had considerable symbolic meaning in ancient Egypt. She suggests that there is a symbolic purpose for the positioning of the amphorae. The red wine to the west was representative of Tutankhamun’s transfiguration as Osiris-Ra; the white wine to the east was the transfiguration to Ra in the morning, and the shedeh to the south may be representative of the king’s most difficult step of rebirth. Ultimately, Guach-Janà © concludes that the wines found in the annexe were undoubtedly offerings of the usual king for sustenance in the afterlife. By analysis of the residue found in the amphorae along with the ideological thinking of the time, it may be concluded that Guasch-Janà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s conclusion is well supported. Although it may be argued that the research is inconclusive due to the inability to determine what ancient societies were actually thinking, analysis of writings and artifacts outlined in the article are sufficie nt to rule out any problematic assumptions or logical errors. Ultimately, I believe that the research done is significant as it eliminates the ambiguity surrounding the placement of amphorae in tombs, and it allows for a greater insight into the behaviour or the ancient Egyptians. Reference(s) Guasch Janà ©, Maria Rosa. â€Å"The meaning of wine in Egyptian Tombs: the three amphorae from Tutankhamun’s burial chamber.† Antiquity 85 (329), (2011): 851-858 [1] Guasch Janà ©, Maria Rosa. [2] Guasch Janà ©, Maria Rosa [3] Guasch Janà ©, Maria Rosa

The Dark Side of Judge Pyncheon in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Novel, The Hou

The Dark Side of Judge Pyncheon in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Novel, The House of the Seven Gables People in society live in a masquerade. Everyone wears a decoratively adorned mask that displays beauty, purity, and service. However, behind the mask lies on the inside of all society. One will stop at nothing in order to be well liked, thus becoming hypocrites. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel, The House of the Seven Gables, the narrator uses intense diction, a vivid selection of detail, and a shocking tone to reveal that the character of Judge Pyncheon resembles perfection on the outside, yet â€Å"darker traits† sit latent on the inside. The narrator uses intense diction to describe Judge Pyncheon’s character as near perfection. He reflects traits such as â€Å"purity,† â€Å"faithfulness,† â€Å"devotedness,† â€Å"zeal,† â€Å"unimpeachable integrity† and â€Å"cleanliness.† This shows that he works very hard to keep a respectable public opinion. It is as if the judge does what the public thinks he ought to do. The narrator’s complement diction gives the judge a near to perfect appearance to onlookers. This respect...

Follow The Commandments - Or Else Essay -- essays research papers

There are public institutions that want the Ten Commandments displayed. If that is done the penalty for breaking a commandment should also be displayed. The New Testament teaches that the Old Testament should be obeyed. This includes both the Commandments and the results of not following the Commandments.Jesus said in John 10:35"Scripture cannot be broken."This statement was made after he had said in John 5:46-47"For had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me; for he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings, how shall ye believe my words?"First Commandment, Exodus 20:3"Thou shalt have no other gods before me."The punishment - Deuteronomy 17:3-5"And hath gone and served other gods, and worshipped them, either the sun, or moon, or any of the host of heaven, which I have not commanded; And it be told thee, and thou hast heard of it, and enquired diligently, and, behold, it be true, and the thing certain, that such abomination is wrought i n Israel: Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman, which have committed that wicked thing, unto thy gates, even that man or that woman, and shalt stone them with stones, till they die."More punishment - Exodus 22:20"He that sacrificeth unto any god, save unto the LORD only, he shall be utterly destroyed."New Testament punishment - Mark 16:16"He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that believeth not shall be damned."Second Commandment, Exodus 20:4-5"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God."Third Commandment, Exodus 20:7"Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD thy God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain."The punishment - Leviticus 24:16&quo t;And he that blasphemeth the name of the LORD, he shall surely be put to death, and all the congregation shall certainly stone him: as well the stranger, as he that is born in the land, when he blasphemeth the name of the Lord, shall be put to death."New Testament punishment - Matthew 12:32"And whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh... ...wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers Backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, Without understanding, covenantbreakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful: Who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them."*********And finallyDeuteronomy 13: 6-9"If thy brother, the son of thy mother, or thy son, or thy daughter, or the wife of thy bosom, or thy friend, which is as thine own soul, entice thee secretly, saying, Let us go and serve other gods, which thou hast not known, thou, nor thy fathers; Namely, of the gods of the people which are round about you, nigh unto thee, or far off from thee, from the one end of the earth even unto the other end of the earth; Thou shalt not consent unto him, nor hearken unto him; neither shall thine eye pity him, neither shalt thou spare, neither shalt thou conceal him: But thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death, and afterwards the hand of all the people."

Criminal homicide Essay

Criminal homicide is the most severe form of homicide and is considered one of the most serious crimes in society. This kind of homicide consists of unlawful conduct and malicious intent on the part of the killer. Murder is one form of homicide and is the most serious type. The crime of murder itself may seem straight forward but the laws surrounding the crime are intricate and entail a precise set of circumstances to institute the components of the murder. Murder is defined as â€Å"the purposeful, knowing, or reckless unlawful killing of another human being.† It has two separate components: The suspect must have acted with the required specific intent to kill and the suspect’s behavior must have caused the death of another human being. Many states use different terms to define intent or mens rea. Pennsylvania uses the terms lying in wait, willful, deliberate or premeditated to institute the required specific intent (Wallace & Roberson, 2012). The second component entails a death as an outcome of the suspect’s acts or failure to act and any conduct will meet the requirements. There are also different degrees of murder including first-degree, second-degree and manslaughter. These different degrees of murder depend on the purpose behind the killing and the way the killing is committed. The specific definition of each degree depends on the state or country that the crime is committed in. First-degree murder is different from the other two types of murder because it is planned. Normally, first-degree murder is a criminal offense involving intent, homicides that are planned, or homicides that occur during the commission of another felony. The crime of first-degree murder needs the intent to kill, premeditation of that killing and deliberation of that killing. Some examples of first-degree murder are poisoning, bombing and assault with a deadly weapon. The penalty for committing first-degree murder is different depending on which state the crime is committed in but is most likely life imprisonment or even the death penalty. Defenses against first-degree murder include actual innocence, mistaken identity, justified homicide, self-defense, defense of others and insanity. Second-degree murder is a crime of passion or an unlawful killing where the intent to kill and the act of killing itself happen almost simultaneously (Schmalleger, 2012). For example, a person who commits a killing in a fit of rage or a person who is motivated to kill by receiving insults or physical abuse, are likely to be charged with second-degree  murder. But the act of killing must happen instantly after the fit of rage or insults because if time lapses between the two than it permits the chance for thought to occur which would turn into premeditation and therefore become first-degree murder. Defenses against second-degree murder include actual innocence, insanity, and self-defense. Third-degree murder or manslaughter is different from the other degrees because it refers to homicides that result from someone’s action that is unlawful or negligent. Other names for third-degree murder include negligent homicide, negligent manslaughter, or involuntary manslaughter. Manslaughter is a less serious crime than first or second degree murder because it involves carelessness and not purposeful killing. An example of manslaughter is a drunk driver who causes a fatal accident can be charged with vehicular manslaughter. Defenses against manslaughter include actual innocence, accidental killing and intoxication.

Anecdotes For Reflection Essay

1. What was the book about and what did you learn from it? This book is about morals based on stories on the holy prophet and the companions of the noble prophet. There are stories about the imams and other prophets too. Most importantly the conclusion of this book is about to guide us to right path. I have learnt three main things about the first one is humiliation if you go to the fifth chapter it then go to Page 52-53 it is a wonder full story about ‘The short and ugly son ‘ I’ll tell you in brief there was a king who had several of kids to which 1 amongst all of them was short and ugly and the others were tall and beautiful the king always looked down at the short and ugly child. But the king never knew how intelligent the short and ugly kid was. To which the ugly boy told his father ‘ He who is taller is not necessary better or superior; a sheep is clean but an elephant like a carcass’ by which the started to laugh at him and humiliating him, so I have learnt never to humiliate anyone to how ever they are. The second thing I have learnt is ‘LIE’ if you lie you will be caught out and your lie won’t stay for a long time. And if you lie then you are compelled to say a lie again till you say the truth. The third I have learnt is ‘ignorance’ if I ignore someone then straight away I have displeased four feelings first one is Bibi Fatima the second one is prophet Muhammad the third one is Allah and the forth one is the person is the one I ignored. And I shall practise this by making notes and try to stick on near my desk so I should remember. 2. Did you like this book give reasons to your answer? I liked the book i have learnt something from each and every section and it has shown me the right path and the right teachings. These stories in the book have made me reflect to what I have done in the past and as the book got more interesting and inshallah I will try rectifying myself from now onwards. and the other I liked in this book is how he author has made sections which was very good and I am hoping to read â€Å"the anecdotes for reflection part three† 3. Which 5 anecdotes did you like the best and why? * The Jews and unlawful food The part I liked is is that when were talking amongst themselves while the noble prophet who 7 years old while the Jews were having food so 1 Jew said to other I Have read in a scripture that a prophet would never go near a unlawful food so they invited the prophet but the noble prophet refused the Jews played this trick on the prophet twice but failed but to which interested was that the holy scripture was right and surprising too. And the other thing I loved was that the prophet was only 7 and he knew what was right and what was wrong. * Bahul the gravedigger There was a person in the time of the noble prophet named mu’adh-ibn-jabaal. Mu’adh-ibn-jabaal told the holy prophet there is a person who wants to see you. When the prophet walked up to the door of the mosque he saw a good looking guy who was crying as if a mother would cry for his son then the prophet inquired why he was crying then the man turned to the prophet and said why should I not cry i have committed a sin which Allah will never forgive. then the prophet asked ‘did you associate anyone else with Allah or did you kill anyone’ the man said so the holy prophet said even if your sins are bigger than a mountain than Allah will forgive them so the man said that my sins are bigger than the mountains so the prophet said are you sins bigger than the seven earths, all the sands, tree, seas, the man said yes so the holy prophet inquired would you please narrate one of your sins to me the man said why not he then said for the past seven years i have been digg ing up people graves and took their shrouds and i sold them. Then the prophet said ‘o’ sinner stay away from me or i fear that i would burn from your fire too. At that moment the man looked down and went towards the mountains and tied himself and wept for forty days and asked Allah to pardon him and then Allah revealed to the prophet that the man is forgiven so the prophet went to the mountains and told him that he was forgiven so the moral is that if you want be forgiven then ask from real heart and inshallah you will be forgiven. * Imam Hasan and the Syrian. I liked this anecdote because the way imam Hasan speaks about the man in this anecdote i have learnt that if your father has an enemy that does not mean that you should be his enemy you shall make good relationships and good bonds with everyone. One day a man sets his eye on the imam then he started cursing him the imam waited patiently till he finished then the imam greeted him and said ‘If you have a desire i shall fulfil it E.T.C’ when the imam finished the man started crying and crying then he said i bear witness that you are the caliph of this world. * The humbleness of Salman Farsi I liked this anecdote because it teaches you how to be humble. If you carry things that you can carry and give someone else to carry it you get a sin and you may end up everyone being against and you might end up by people feet pleading and pleading for forgiveness. Then saying please forgive me as i did not realise who you are.and I have learnt not to give my burden to anyone else. * Isa and the greedy person. I liked this anecdote because it has two points one is lie and the other one is greed there was once a person in the time of Isa and Isa gave money to the man and said go and buy three loaves bread so the man came back with loaves of bread as Isa had engaged himself with prayers for a long time the man quietly consumed a loaf of brad so when Isa had finished his prayer and asked the man where is the other loaf of bread the man said that there were only two loaves of bread than they settled down and started eating when they had finished they went for a walk they saw a deer they sacrificed and started to eat it after they had finished Isa gave that deer back his life the man was shocked so Isa asked again where the third loaf of bread is the man still said there was only two so they went along and they saw three gold bricks Isa took one the man took one then Isa said this is the one who ate the third loaf of bread the man said greedily i ate the third loaf of bread. 4. What didn’t you understand from the book? I never understood that the noble prophet revealed his prophesy till the age of 20 or higher pg 166 it says the group of Jews said to themselves that a prophet would never go near a unlawful food when the prophet was 7 they had invited him to come and eat the unlawful food And the prophet rejected it. 5. What other Islamic books will I read over the next year. I will read the following books over the next year inshallah: 1. WHY I BECAME A SHIA 2. ANECDOTE FOR REFLECTION PART 3 3. A†¦BEAUTIFULL†¦STRING†¦OF†¦INCIDENTS 4. STORIES OF THE PROPHET.

Lecture Notes for Bio 106

Reproductive roles Male’s job is to get the sperm to the egg The sperm are specialized to deliver the male’s genes to the egg Female’s job is to produce a gamete (egg) containing the female’s genes Egg is specialized to nourish the embryo Egg is large and contains nutrients Egg must be moved along Female must also nourish and protect the embryo and fetus This is the job of the uterus Male reproductive strategy: Produce millions of gametes and hope that one makes it to the egg Female reproductive strategy: Invest heavily in one gamete and nourish and protect it Egg Cell (Ovum; 1 copy each chromosome) Sperm Cell (1 copy of each chromosome) MEIOSIS (a type of cell division that begins with a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome and ends with 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome) FERTLIZATION (Fusion of Egg and Sperm nuclei; creates a cell with 2 copies of each chromosome) Zygote (cell formed by fusion of egg and sperm; has 2 copies of each chromosome; will develop into new individual) Ovary (in female) Testis (in male) 1 Gonads: a. Testes in male b. Ovaries in females 1. roduce gametes Male = sperm Female = ovum or egg join zygote; new individual 2. produce sex hormones testosterone estrogen + progesterone Male Reproductive System Testes located in scrotum why? sperm don't survive well at body temperature is 3-4o F cooler temp kept constant by reflex how? – pass through the inguinal canal before birth hole usually closed over with connective tissue possible problems 1. cryptorchidism failure of the testes to descend if not corrected, results in sterility corrected by surgery or by administering hormones 2. inguinal hernia inguinal canal does not completely close intestine may push into opening correct with surgery more common in men but may occur in women Inside Testes 1. eminiferous tubules about 1000 site where sperm are produced by a process called spermatogenesis produce 100 million+ sperm each day from puberty until death spermatogenesis A. takes place in an orderly progression from the outside edge of seminiferous tubule to inside (lumen) B. involves changes in genetic information and changes in the shape and functioning of cell sperm carry father’s genetic contribution to next offspring body cells have 2 copies of each chromosome (1 from Mom & 1 from Dad) gametes (egg or sperm) can have only 1 copy of each chromosome meiosis = the type of cell division that produces gametes 1 cell with 2 copies of each chromosome Meiosis spermatogenesis 4 cells with 1 copy of each chromosome Sperm Structure 2 designed to deliver male’s genetic contribution to next generation 1.Head – contains male’s genetic contribution to next generation; almost all nucleus 2. Acrosome – a sac containing enzymes to will allow the sperm to digest the outer layers around egg so sperm nucleus can reach egg nucleus 3. Mitochondria – energy to fuel the trip to egg 4. Tail (or flagellum) has contractile fibers for motility; allows the sperm to swim to egg 2. interstitial cells – produce male sex hormone – testosterone Still in testis – between seminiferous tubules Beginning at puberty these cells secrete testosterone They are stimulated to secrete testosterone by LH, a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland LH (from anterior pituitary) stimulates the release of testosteroneHORMONES chemical messengers produced by certain glands and released into the blood hormone reaches all cells only cells with a receptor for that hormone can respond a cell responds by doing what that cell does it might divide it might produce a chemical it might increase rate of certain chemical reactions so hormones have different effects on different cells cells without receptors for that hormone cannot respond 3 Cell 1 (with receptor) Effect 1 Cell 2 (with receptor) Effect 2 Hormone Into blood supply throughout body Cell 3 (with receptor) Effect 3 Cell 4 (no rec eptor) No Effect Testosterone causes: development of male reproductive apparatus sperm maturation secondary sex characteristics sex drive (in part) Possible problems with testes Testicular cancer: most common in males 25-30 yrs. more common if testes did not descend after 6 yrs. may be hereditary usually does not cause pain Practice self exam! Feel for small lump Best done after a hot shower Sperm next enter a system of tubes to store and transport sperm 1. pididymis: tube about 20 feet long stores sperm sperm mature here, sperm change size and shape, metabolism changes, sperm become capable of moving but don't yet. sperm moved along by peristalsis (a wave of muscle contraction) 2. vas deferens: sperm duct conducts sperm from epididymis to urethra 3. urethra: conducts sperm to outside of body, also conducts urine but never at same time Accessory Glands: 1. Bulbourethral glands mucous secretion just before ejaculation lubricant? Buffers to adjust pH of urethra 2. Prostate gland secre tes fluid, milky color alkaline activates sperm counteracts acidity of female reproductive tract Possible problems with prostate 1. enlarges in older men difficulty urinating & decreased bladder volume 2. rostate cancer grows slowly can spread detected by: rectal exam and blood test for PSA (prostate specific antigen) 4 3. Seminal vesicles make up most of the volume of semen secretion probably nourishes sperm (contains fructose, vitamin C, amino acids, prostaglandins) Result = semen Semen: secretions of accessory glands and sperm about 1 tsp. per ejaculation, about 20 % sperm Functions: transport sperm lubricate passageways nourish sperm decrease acidity of female reproductive tract Penis: Functions: transfer sperm to female conducts sperm outside body tip is enlarged = glans penis (rich in sensory endings) Mechanism of erection 3 columns of spongy tissue arteries dilate ? increase blood delivery veins close down blood accumulatesErectile Dysfunction = Impotence inability to achieve or maintain an erection common problem many possible causes – both physical and emotional drugs now available to help a man have an erection when he is sexually stimulated (e. g. Viagra, Cialis, Levitra) These inhibit the breakdown of the neurotransmitter that causes the arteries in penis to dilate arteries are dilated longer increases and prolongs blood entering the penis ? erection Female Reproductive System gonads = 2 ovaries 1. produce eggs or ova (singular = ovum) egg is specialized to provide nourishment for early embryo large cell full of nutrients 2. produce female hormones: estrogen progesterone Female also nourishes and protects the developing embryo and fetus = job of the uterus 5 Ovarian Cycle = series of events in the ovary that leads to production of egg, estrogen & progesterone 1. ollicle maturation primary follicle = an immature egg surrounded by a layer of follicle cells as follicle matures the immature egg gets larger follicle cells divide and form many lay ers around egg follicle cells secrete estrogen mature follicle egg completes first meiotic division layers of follicle cells splits forming a central cavity filled with fluid containing estrogen egg pushed to side with layer of follicle cells 2. ovulation = release of immature egg from ovary egg released with layer of follicle cells around it rest of follicle cells stay in ovary 3. corpus luteum forms from follicle cells remaining in ovary corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesteroneOVARY primary follicle (immature egg surrounded by follicle cells) mature follicle (many layers of follicle cells, fluid filled cavity, egg surrounded by follicle cells) after ovulation follicle cells remaining in ovary become corpus luteum estrogen progesterone egg 1. estrogen maturation of egg development and maintenance of reproductive structures cell division: thickens lining of uterus also occurs in breast tissue secondary sex characteristics pubic hair armpit hair broader pelvis breast developm ent 2. progesterone prepares uterus for egg implantation maintains pregnancy 6 Oogenesis = the process by which an egg (ovum) is formed Meiosis: starts with a cell that has 2 copies of every chromosome ends with up to 4 cells with 1 copy of every chromosome 1 egg (ovum) and 3 non functional polar bodies IN FEMALES MEIOSIS IS NOT A CONTINUOUS PROCESS Preparations begin efore birth in all potential eggs Then development stops Beginning at puberty, 1 egg continues to the next stage of development The egg is ovulated (released from the ovary) Meiosis is completed ONLY if the egg is fertilized) Number of ova At puberty: potential for about 400,000 eggs Usually 1 each month develops in each monthly cycle (if 2 form and both are fertilized get fraternal twins) total egg production ~ 450 eggs in lifetime menopause – rest of potential eggs have degenerated Oviducts (Fallopian tubes tubes that conduct the egg to the uterus – takes about 3 days open end enlarged and fringed †“ increased surface area for catching egg cilia line oviducts to help move egg along fertilization – usually in upper third of oviduct ectopic pregnancy – usually a tubal pregnancy early embryo implants and begins development at site other than uterus usually in Fallopian tube (oviduct) dangerous to mother – must be terminated Uterus provides nourishment & protects the developing embryo and fetus A. Cervix – tubular portion the extends into vagina has opening through which sperm enter and baby exits B. Body – region in which fetus develops 1.Endometrium – lining site where embryo implants built up each month cell division makes it thicker becomes more vascular (more blood vessels) glands develop that provide nutritious material then lost as menstrual fluid (woman gets her period) 2. muscle allows uterus to expand as fetus grows 60X bigger at full term pregnancy 7 provides force to push baby out Possible problems with uterus: 1. Pelvic Infl ammatory Disease (PID): any bacterial infection of pelvic organs especially uterus, oviducts, ovaries; may spread (peritonitis) may be painful or chronic may have no symptoms often leaves oviduct scarred so that fertility is reduced and the risk of ectopic pregnancy is increased treated with antibiotics most commonly caused by sexually transmitted bacteria the bacteria that cause gonorrhea and chlamydia 2.Cervical cancer: involves external surface of cervix detect with PAP test risk factors -intercourse at an early age -multiple sex partners associated with certain STDsparticularly the HPV (human papilloma virus) that causes genital warts use of condoms and/or diaphragm decreases risk Vagina ~3 muscular passageway to uterus elastic – expands to allow baby through possible problem with vagina: vaginitis most commonly yeast (Candida albicans) not usually sexually transmitted not from poor hygiene bacteria in the vagina produce acid Anything that kills the bacteria or makes the vagina less acidic allows yeast to grow ? vaginitis Clitoris †¢ †¢ †¢ Derived from same embryological structure as the glans penis Becomes engorged with blood during sexual excitement No known function other than pleasure 8Menstrual or Uterine Cycle the endometrium (uterine lining) is built up to nourish the embryo and then it breaks down and is lost as menstrual flow it is a cycle caused by interplay of hormones want the uterus ready to receive embryo if there is one the ovarian cycle that produces the egg must be coordinated with the uterine cycle that prepares the uterus done by same hormones Hormones of the menstrual cycle OVARY Estrogen – from follicle cells in ovary and later from corpus luteum maturation of egg cell division in endometrium (uterine lining) cell division in breast tissue Progesterone – from corpus luteum further development of endometrium maintains endometrium ANTERIOR PITUITARY FSH – follicle stimulating hormone: stimulate s development of follicle LH – luteinizing hormone formation of corpus luteum from follicle cells remaining in ovary maintains corpus luteum Negative Feedback X? Y hormone X leads to an increase in hormone Y Y? X hormone Y causes decrease in hormone X when hormone X levels fall, less hormone Y produced less hormone Y means less inhibition of hormone X hormone X increases and stimulates release of hormone Y IN GENERAL FSH & LH stimulate release of estrogen and progesterone estrogen and progesterone inhibit release of FSH & LH BUT rapid rise in estrogen triggers LH release LH causes corpus luteum to form and secrete estrogen and progesterone corpus lutuem degenerates – estrogen and progesterone levels drop (removes inhibition of FSH) 9Negative feedback in menstrual cycle Low levels of estrogen and progesterone stimulate the release of FSH (and LH) from anterior pituitary FSH stimulates estrogen release by follicle cells in ovary Estrogen (and progesterone) inhibit FSH (a nd LH) release FSH and LH levels drop Estrogen and progesterone levels drop if the egg is fertilized corpus luteum is maintained by a hormone from the embryo called: human chorionic gonadotropic (HCG) hormone for about 5 months the corpus luteum secretes progesterone placenta eventually takes over progesterone secretion progesterone is needed to maintain endometrium if progesterone secretion stops – there is a miscarriage Menopause considered to have occurred when there is no period for 1 year follicles in ovary spontaneously degenerate eggs no longer produced ends child-bearing years estrogen & progesterone no longer produced in ovary occurs most often between 4555yrs. occurs gradually Perimenopause = time leading up to menopause Symptoms hot flashes & dizziness – dilation of arteries in top half of body may be: irritable headaches fatigue physical changes skin drier & less elastic ? wrinkles breasts decrease in size might be change in distribution of hair osteoporosi s – decrease in bone density NEED NOT CHANGE SEXUAL DESIRE 10Estrogen DESIRABLE EFFECTS Brain regulates areas that prepare for reproduction maintains stable body temperature may protect memory Breast Breast programs glands promotes breast to produce milk cancer Liver & Heart helps regulate cholesterol production prevents atherosclerosi s Uterus Uterus programs uterus to promotes nourish fetus cancer of cell division in endometrium endometrium NEGATIVE EFFECTS Estrogen’s Effect on Bone Bone maintains density causes calcium to be absorbed from gut promotes calcium deposit in bones Osteoporosis – decrease in bone density calcium salts make bone hard bones are constantly remodeled built up & broken down in response to stress (weight or pressure) until age 35 more build up than break down peak bone density influenced by: sex race size nutrition exercise that puts weight on bones overall health Bone Formation Blood level Of calcium Calcium in Bone 11Bone Breakdown Die t influences level of calcium in blood good sources of calcium: milk and milk products (choose low fat) dark green vegetables nuts seeds Weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone formation in the bones that are stressed by the exercise walking jogging calcium levels are regulated by hormones calcitonin from thyroid gland causes calcium to be put into bones parathyroid hormone from parathyroid glands causes calcium to be removed from bone estrogen helps absorption of calcium from digestive system stimulates bone formation After menopause estrogen levels greatly decrease Bone Formation Calcitonin Estrogen Blood level Of calcium Calcium in BoneThe Breast Function To produce milk to nourish the young Structure The breast is composed almost entirely of fatty tissue and milk glands milk glands are called lobules each gland drains into a system of ducts these empty into a collecting chamber below nipple several ducts collect into one duct ducts drain through nipple Possible Problems 1. Preme nstrual tenderness breast tissue is prepared each month along with egg and endometrium Estrogen causes cell division in breast tissue Progesterone causes increase in glandular activity Increase in blood supply to breast swelling and tenderness Parathyroid Hormone Bone Breakdown Bone Formation 12 2. fibrocystic breast disease (disorder) an exaggeration of monthly changes in breast tissue built up tissue is not completely reabsorbed and forms cysts feels like many lumps in breast 3. fibroadenoma – noncancerous lump in breast usually in upper & outer quadrant small moveable lump 4. reast cancer will return to this after discussion of cancer 13 Cancer = uncontrolled cell division Cancer cells kill by: depriving other cells of nutrients preventing other cells from performing their duties blocking important pathways (air, blood, nerve) Cells divide Tumor Benign tumor: stays in one place; not cancer Malignant tumor: cancer, cells spread (metastasize) multiple tumors form in other pa rts of body usually spread via blood vessels or lymphatic system In healthy person cell division is regulated Cell Cycle = the orderly sequence of events in the life of a dividing cell G1 – cell growth (G1 checkpoint – is the cell large enough to divide? S (synthesis) – genetic material (DNA of chromosomes) is duplicated G2 – growth and final preparations for cell division (G2 checkpoint – is the DNA replicated? ) Cell division Mitosis – nucleus divides Cytoplasm divides produces two daughter cells Normal controls on cell growth regulate cell division to allow growth and replacement 14 Cancer cells escape controls Normal controls: 1. Genes regulate the cell cycle GENE carries the instructions for making a protein PROTEIN has a job in the cell it might form (part of) a structure it might be regulatory = determine whether a certain cellular process will occur mutation = change in the gene’s information changes the instructions for the p rotein the new protein might not function or might function differently Normal Controls on Cell Division 1.Genes regulate the cell cycle proto-oncogene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that stimulate the cell cycle for growth and repair acts like accelerator about 60 known if other controls were faulty it would enhance the growth of a tumor tumor-suppressor gene – normal form of a gene that produces specific proteins that slow the cell cycle proteins stop cell cycle at one of the checkpoints acts like brakes Normal Genetic Controls on Cell Division tumorprotosuppressor oncogene gene slows stimulates cell division mutations in these cell cycle genes can cause the cell to lose control over cell division Cancer oncogene = mutant protooncogene over stimulates cell division = stuck accelerator can help induce cancer dominant mutation – only need 1 of the 2 copies to be mutant mutant tumor-suppressor gene impairs ability to slow cell cycle = bro ken brakes enhances tumor formation recessive mutation – need mutation in both copies of the gene to have an effect 15 p53 a tumor-suppressor gene detects damaged DNA 2. rogrammed cell death occurs when genes are damaged cancer cells have mutation in other genes that prevent the damaged cells from being destroyed 3. limited life span cell can only divide 50-60 times telomeres – protective pieces on tips of chromosomes end of telomeres shaved off with each cell division telomerase = enzyme that makes telomeres not present in normal cells is present in most cancer cells 4. Need for blood supply controls prevent new blood supply to tissue unless it is damaged cancer cells produce growth factors to attract new blood vessels blood vessels needed to bring nutrients and remove waste also provides route for cancer cells to spread tops cell division initiates DNA repair if too much DNA damage —> p53 triggers programmed cell death Development of cancer need several mutati ons in same cell before cancer starts leukemia – may be as few as 3 mutations colon cancer – may need as many as 9 mutations EXAMPLE ONLY: Development of colon cancer 1. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 5 a polyp forms on colon wall a benign, precancerous tumor grows 2. Activation of oncogene from chromosome 12 a class II adenoma (benign) forms) 3. Loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 18 a class III adenoma (benign) grows 4. loss of tumor-suppressor gene from chromosome 17 a carcinoma (malignant tumor) forms 5. other changes ? cancer spreads to other tissues 16 5.Need for cell attachment normal cells must be anchored in place oncogenes produce proteins that break anchors but signal cell that it is anchored Immune System – The body’s defense system cells of the immune system roam the body looking for cells they don’t recognize as belonging cancer cells have changed and are not recognized as belonging if cells of the immune syst em encounter a cancer cell, they will be destroy it Factors that can cause cancer 1. carcinogens = chemicals that cause cancer cause mutations that lead to cancer many mutate p53 stimulate cell division (e. g. estrogen) inhibiting the immune system may be in environment, in food or drink, or inhaled at least 50 carcinogens some carcinogens are only carcinogenic after modification in the body 2. iruses consist of genetic information (usually DNA) inside a protein coat virus enters cell and uses host cell machinery to make new viruses viral DNA is inserted into host cell chromosome and is replicated with host cell DNA viral DNA is then a permanent part of host cell chromosome – it has transformed the cell into a cancer cell – all daughter cells will have the viral genes viruses have oncogenes that produce proteins that stimulate cell division viral protein produced may be hyperactive in stimulating cell division OR viral gene may direct human gene to produce too much of a protein that stimulates cell division result is a host cell that has been permanently changed by virus so that it contains an oncogene that stimulates cell division 3. radiation interacts with DNA and causes mutation ultraviolet (uv) radiation from sun causes skin cancer ionizing radiation natural sources (cosmic rays, radioactive materials in earth’s crust) medical sources (x-ray exams) 17 Risk Factors 1. revious breast or other form of cancer Breast Cancer most breast lumps are benign (not cancerous) fibrocystic breasts fibroadenoma death rate from breast cancer has been declining due to early detection practice monthly self exam breast cancer usually begins in the ducts (80%) or the glands begins as lump or tumor lump is usually in upper outer quadrant staged by size of lump and how far it has spread it can metastasize: break out of this site and spread to fatty tissue or other parts of body through lymphatic system or blood supply to determine whether cancer has spread they would look at sentinel nodes (first lymph nodes to which a tumor drains) 2. Gender females much more likely (men can get breast cancer) 3. Age chance of breast cancer goes up with age rises sharply after 40 4.Family history risk is 2X if: first-degree relative (mother, sister, daughter) with breast cancer risk is 5X if: 2 first-degree relatives with breast cancer may have inherited genes e. g. BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 these greatly increase chance of breast cancer BRCA 1 = a tumorsuppressor gene turns off another gene that blocks cell cycle 18 5. Hormone history prolonged, uninterrupted exposure to estrogen increases risk estrogen stimulates cell division in breast if too much estrogen some believe it can lead to cancer some types of breast tumors are stimulated to grow by estrogen more menstrual cycles = more exposure to estrogen risk increased by: a. early puberty – before 11 b. late menopause – after 55 c. not having children or delaying first pregnancy – after 30 What about other sources of estrogen? irth control pills – probably not hormone replacement after menopause – slight environmental sources – unknown certain pollutants mimic estrogen (pesticides, ingredients in plastics) electromagnetic fields can boost body’s production of estrogen 6. Obesity fat cells produce a substance that is converted to estrogen 7. Alcohol alcohol increases level of estrogen interferes with use of folate, which protects against tumor growth 19 Birth Control Effectiveness rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who do NOT become pregnant Failure Rate = # of couples out of every 100 using that means of contraception for 1 year who DO become pregnant Typical Use = average person, use may be improper or inconsistent Vs.Perfect Use = proper and consistent use Effectiveness in Preventing STDs STDs spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected surface surface Uninfected Effectiv eness in Preventing Pregnancy Highly Effective 1. Sterilization (tubal ligation or vasectomy) prevent sperm from reaching egg 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. vaginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks 4th week no patch B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. ral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants c. injections C. Emergency contraception – ? morning after pills? 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2. Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 120 hours (5 days), second dose 12 hours later Decrease spread of STDs Certain means of contraception also prevent contact between body surfaces Condom – male or female Diaphragm or cervical cap (so me protection to woman) Increase spread of STDs Pill may increase woman’s risk of certain STDs Spermicides increase a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 20 3. IUD – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo 4.Diaphragm, cervical cap, FemCap, or Lea’s shield with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg 6. Vaginal sponge Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception May increase the risk of STD spread, particularly in women 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Unreliable 1. Withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Does not work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding Reliable methods 1.Sterilization — permanent birth control Tubal ligation or vasectomy prevent the sperm from meeting the egg Should NOT be used if you or your partner may change your mind For male = vasectomy Close off vas deferens so sperm can’t leave the male’s body Sperm reabsorbed Still ejaculate Simple operation No effect on masculinity No effect on sex life or sex drive Risks: minimal Less than 1% of time tubes grow back together Occasionally a little bleeding in scrotum For women = tubal ligation = have tubes tied Close off oviducts (fallopian tubes) More difficult procedure than a vasectomy because must enter the abdominal cavity Does not cause menopause Will still menstruate No effect on sex drive 21 2. Hormonal Contraception A. Estrogen and progesterone – prevents egg development and ovulation 1. oral – the pill 2. aginal ring – NuvaRing – woman inserts the ring so that it encircles the cervix; worn 3 weeks, removed for the 4th 3. skin patch – OrthoEvra new patch once a week for 3 weeks; 4th week no patch expect same risks as pill, but know most about birth control pill Contain estrogen and progesterone Estrogen & progesterone inhibit FSH and LH Without FSH the egg doesn’t develop Without LH ovulation cannot occur Almost 100% effective – if used properly If you miss more than one day, use another form of birth control Side Effects Headaches Breast tenderness Weight gain Vaginal Infections are more common Serious Risks caused primarily by estrogen Circulatory System Problems rare but can be fatal A.Problems: (1) High blood pressure (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots (1) High blood pressure Increases with time on pill Increases with woman’s age STOP SMOKING – cigarette smoking also causes high blood pressure Blood pressure = pressure exerted by blood on vessel walls Created by beating of heart Pressure must be great enough to move blood around the body If too g reat = high blood pressure Problems caused by high blood pressure 1. strains the heart and blood vessels 2. can lead to an aneurysm (weak spot in artery wall balloons out; can rupture; bleed to death internally 3. promotes atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in arteries) and arteriosclerosis (hardening of arteries) 4. amages kidneys; can lead to kidney failure 22 (2) Increased tendency to form blood clots Danger is that a blood clot can break free and lodge in a small blood vessel, blocking blood flow B. Consequences: (1) Increased risk of heart attack and stroke Heart attack = death of heart cells Stroke = death of nerve cells in brain Heart attack & stroke occur when blood flow to heart or brain is interrupted by: Burst vessel Fatty deposits (atherosclerosis) Blood clot (2) increased risk of pulmonary embolism 2. Increased risk of urinary tract infections 3. Increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted diseases A. Change in pH of vagina – increased risk of chlamydia and gon orrhea B.Change in cervical structure exposes vulnerable cells C. HPV (human papilloma virus that causes genital warts) infection is more likely to result in cervical cancer Progesterone seems to activate HPV in cervical cells grown is culture Non-contraceptive benefits of the pill Decreased risk of PID (pelvic inflammatory disease) Decreased risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer Decreased risk of ectopic pregnancy Decreased risk of iron deficiency anemia 1. 2. 3. 4. 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) B. Progesterone-only contraception interferes with fertilization and implantation Types a. oral – mini pill (not used much in US) b. implants –hormone containing rods implanted in upper arm c. njections – DepoProvera injection every 3 months 99% effective in preventing pregnancy no protection against STDs 23 Mechanism of action of progesterone only a. Thickens cervical mucus b. Interferes with movement of sperm c. makes implantation more difficult because endometr ium thin d. Sometimes blocks ovulation e. Makes the corpus luteum degenerate too quickly (removes the source of progesterone that maintains the endometrium) Side effects a. Menstrual cycle disturbance Periods irregular More days of light bleeding Missed periods b. Weight gain c. breast tenderness d. bone density decreases 2. Hormonal contraception (cont. ) C. Emergency contraception – â€Å"morning after pills† 1. Preven – estrogen and progesterone 2.Plan B – progesteroneonly first dose within 72 hours, second dose 12 hours later Emergency contraception is thought to work by inhibiting or delaying ovulation preventing fertilization altering the endometrium, making it an inhospitable place for implantation of the young embryo used after an act of unprotected intercourse if pregnancy not desired risk of pregnancy varies from 0 – 26 after a single act of intercourse – depending on day of cycle morning after pill decreases the risk of pregnancy by 75% (e. g. from 26% to 6. 5%) does not affect the embryo is it has already implanted Side effects: 1. nausea in 50-70% of women 22% vomit 2. menstrual cycle disturbance next period 2 – 3 days early or late 3.IUD (intrauterine device) – interferes with fertilization and/or implantation; dislodges embryo Small device placed inside the uterus by physician remains effective for 1, 3 or 7 years, depending on the type 24 Effectiveness 97% with progesterone 99% with copper Mechanism of action of IUD– affects: Sperm – immobilizes sperm; interferes with their movement Ovum – speeds up movement to uterus Fertilization inhibited Endometrium – not properly developed for implantation FemCap – 3 sizes, latex free, removal strap Prevents the sperm from reaching the egg Must use with spermicidal cream or jelly Helps seal gaps Holds it in place Added chemical protection Must be fitted by a health care professional so seal is tight refit if weight c hanges by more than 10 lbs. Effectiveness 97-98% perfect use 81% typical use It is ? at the time? rotection In place not more than 2 – 3 hr before intercourse Left in place at least 6 – 8 hrs. after intercourse Offers the woman some protection against STDs Risks with diaphragm – minimal 1. slight increase frequency of bladder infection 2. possible allergic reaction 3. toxic shock syndrome don’t leave in place more than 24 hours or use when you have your period 1. 2. 3. 4. Disadvantages 1. if never had children, insertion is painful 2. may have heavier menstrual flow & more cramps 3. body may reject it – then not protected against pregnancy Risks 1. pelvic inflammatory disease – primarily following insertion of the device can lead to sterility and increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 2. increased risk of ectopic pregnancy 4.Diaphragm or cervical cap with spermicide – covers cervix and prevents sperm from reaching egg Soft rubber cup on flexible ring that fits over the cervix Lea’s shield one-size fits all reusable device 25 5. Condom – prevents sperm from reaching egg A. Male condom Thin strong latex sheath that covers the penis and prevents sperm from reaching the egg Disadvantages: Must be placed on an erect penis – before contact with vagina Decreased sensation Failures usually due to tearing if pulled on too tightly – leave at tip if too little lubrication Penis should be withdrawn from vagina while still erect B. female condom Pouch of polyurethane with a flexible ring at each end Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy — 74% typical use Effectiveness against STDs Little known Does provide a barrier Male condom still better 6.Vaginal sponge use: put in place before intercourse (moisten first) leave in place for at least 6 hours after intercourse effective for 24 hours works by: 1. creating a barrier to sperm 2. trapping sperm in sponge 3. spermicide to kill sperm effectivenes s: about 83% less if you have had children Moderately Effective 1. Spermicides – kill sperm Foams are best is used as only means of contraception Effectiveness in preventing pregnancy – about 80% for 60 min. Increases a woman’s risk of getting an STD from an infected partner; damages vaginal lining 26 2. Rhythm Method – abstinence on all days that could result in sperm meeting an egg Egg Can be fertilized for about24 hr. after ovulation Ovulation ccurs 14+/days before the onset of flow Sperm Can live for at least 2 days within woman’s body Problem is predicting ovulation 2 days before it occurs Effectiveness about 75% Fertile period Subtract 14 days from cycle length Add 2 days on either side for uncertainty in time of ovulation Earliest fertile day = 2 days before earliest expected day of ovulation Latest fertile day = 1 day after the latest expected day of ovulation Works best if you avoid all days until at least 1 day after you know ovulation ha s occurred Ways of detecting ovulation 1. Body temperature Requires a special thermometer Must be done first thing in the morning When body temperature increases slightly and stays up ovulation has probably occurred 2. cervical mucus cervical secretion is more slippery and thinner at ovulation Unreliable 1. Withdrawal before ejaculation (coitus interruptus) Methods that DON’T work 1. Douching after intercourse 2. Intercourse standing up or in some other position 3. Intercourse during menstruation (during your period) 4. Intercourse while breastfeeding 27Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) and Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) Extremely Common 2/3 of cases in people under age 25 More likely to affect women Women exposed greater surface area of mucous membrane during sexual contact Women less likely to know they are infected Infected area not easily seen Urethra less likely to be infected So less like to be pain Therefore, women more like to have serious consequences. Spread by contact (direct contact is usually needed) Infected ? Uninfected surface surface Mucous membranes are most vulnerable linings of: Urethra Vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes Vulva (external genitalia of woman) Mouth and throat Rectum Eyes Many STDs can enter through break in skinBacteria A bacterium is a single cell A bacterium can divide very rapidly producing two daughter cells results in very rapid (exponantial) growth of the population *Bacteria produce harmful chemicals = toxins (poisons) of enzymes these toxins kills or damage body cells the damage to body cells causes the symptoms of the disease Bacteria ? Toxin or Enzyme ? Damages / Kills Body Cells Bacteria divide rapidly ? More Cells? More Toxin (or enzyme) ? More damage to body. * Sometimes the damage or symptom is caused by the body's defense mechanisms against the disease. Bacteria = cells with a slightly different structure than the cells found in your body Bacteria have a cell structures (called ribosomes) that have a sliightly different structure than human version Structural differences are important because they allow antibiotics to bactieria without killing host (your) cells. 28Antibiotics kill bacteria by: preventing bacteria from making cell walls OR preventing bacteria from making complete proteins OR damaging the plasma membrane Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics by: inactivating the antibiotic pumping the antibiotic out of cell devoloping the ability to function in spite of antibiotics Antibiotic – resistant bacteria are a major health threat Antibiotic Resistance Some bacteria are now resistant to every known antibiotic Bacteria get their resistance from genes that: Inactivate the antibiotic Pump the antibiotic out of the cell Allow them to function in spite of antibiotic How do bacteria get these resistance genes? 1. They can get their own genes through mutation and selection a. mutation rate is high because rate of cell division is high hen antibiotics are used that a re not strong enough or are not used long enough, the most resistant survive each time antibiotic taken improperly, the more resistant bacteria survive resistance builds b. the â€Å"good bacteria? are killed by the antibiotic† the resistant bacteria can reproduce faster than normal, healthful bacteria and cause illness 2. Bacteria can get resistance genes from other bacteria through plasmids that carry genes for resistance Plasmids – a small circular piece of DNA (genetic materal) that contains a few genes not necessary for bacteria to live, but bacteria with them often have an advantage can be inserted into bacterial chromosome and come out as circular piece again Plasmids can be copied and a copy gived to another bacterium through sex then both bacteria have the genes on the plasmid. 29Certain plasmids (called R factors) have genes for resistance to antibiotics possible to have genes for 1 or 10 different antibiotics genes for resistance for one antibiotic can be ad ded to a plasmid than has genes for resistance to other antibiotics leads to the development of bacteria that are resistance to many different antibiotics multi-drug resistance tends to happen in places where antibiotic use is heavy hospitals farm animals Resistance develops where antibiotics used most Hospitals Livestock Overuse and Misuse of antibiotics has led to resistance 1. Misuse for medical purposes Don't demand antibiotics for viral diseases – they don't work on viruses Take the full course of your prescription 2.Widespead use in livestock and agriculture Used in livestock to promote growth Resistance genes can spread from the animals to the bacteria that harm humans Cook meat throroughly (be sure meat juices don't come in contact with other food) Wash fruits and vegetables Avoid raw eggs Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Caused by different bacteria but have similar symptoms Both primarily affect mucous membranes Most noticeable symptom – if it occurs – is pain during urination This occurs if urethra is infected Urethra is more likely to infected in a male Therefore males more likely to have symptoms Often they don't cause symptoms Can still spread the cactiria to others Bacteria still damage reproductive structures 30Chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis) Most common bacterial STD in US Highly contagious Symptoms – slow to appear, 3 weeks to months Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID (chlamydia causes 50-90% of PID) Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Chlamydia is the STD the most likely to cause scar tissue to form in the tubes that gametes move through Because of scar tissue: Chlamydia is the STD most likely to cause sterility Chlamydia is the STD most likely to increase the risk of an ectopic pregnancy The bacteria that cause chlamydia Must live within a cell because they canno t generate their own ATP They use the ATP that the host cell produces Energy in food ATP Energy for cell activities Effects on Fetus in Utero can cause membranes to rupture can cause death of fetus contracted during birth blindness pneumonia infection of mouth, throat, rectum Diagnosis Urine test for DNA for Chalmydia Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Pap test (women) Treatment: Antibiotics Gonorrhea Caused by diplococcus bacterium Neisseria gonorrheae Symptoms Often none Men More likely to have symptoms than women Painful urination Discharge from urethra 31Women If urethra is infected Painful urination Discharge from urethra PID Slight vaginal discharge Pain during intercourse Abdominal pain & fever Acidity decreases if on pill or at menopause Effect on fetus: Contracted during birth May cause blindness Diagnosis: Urine test form DNA Swab cervix (women) or urethra (males) and culture cells Look for bacteria in cells Treatment: Antibiotics New varieties are re sistant to antibiotics Syphilis Cause = bacterium (Treponema pallidum) Requires a warm, moist environment Can invade any mucous membrane Usually in the genital area Three Stages 1. Primary Stage 2-6 weeks after contact chancre forms may be small swelling or deep lesion usually hard raised edges â€Å"crater-like† painless at site of contact heals by itself in 4-6 weeks diagnosis at this pint is by isolation of the bacterium from chancre 2.Secondary Stage 2-10 weeks after chancre appears Symptoms Rash- doesn't itch, ulcerates Ulcers in mucous membranes In mouth, vulva, vagina, rectum Warly growths around anus and genital organs Headache Body ache May have: Sore throat Gastrointestinal upset Loss of hair Diagnosis at this stage: Blood test that looks for antibodies (VDRL) 32 3. Tertiary Stage 8-25 years after initial contact almost any organ can be infected and develop lesions called a gumma most common sites of gummas: 1. large arteries decrease diameter of artery aneurysm â⠂¬â€œ weak spot in artery that balloons out 2. brain & spinal cord Blindness Deafness Paralysis Mental degeneration 3.Skeleton Effect of fetus Transferred across placenta Can cause deformities Can be fatal Treatment: Early stages curables with antibiotics Virus Viruses have genetic material (usually DNA but some have RNA) and a protein coat (capsid) Structure of a typical virus Steps in Viral Life Cycle 1. Attachement – Viral protein binds to receptor on host cell 2. Penetration – virus enters host cell 3. Biosynthesis – viral genetic material replicated by using host cell ? machinery;? new coat proteins made 4. Assembly – newly synthesized viral compnents put together to form new viruses 5. Release [called viral shedding or budding]; viruses leave cell with envelopes from host cell OR Viruses genetic information can be integrated into host cell chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated Viruses can cause call damage as they are rel eased (shed) 1.Rapid release – cell can rupture and die 2. slow release – cell damage and dearth occurs over long time period 3. Periodic release – viruses can remain in certain body cells (e. g. nerve cells) for life; they may be release from body cells periodically and enter new target cells. (herpes can remain in nerve cells; be released epriodically and enter new epithelial cells; damages the epithelial cells) 4. be integrated into host chromosome and stay there in dormant form until it is reactivated 33 Lytic Infection Persistent Infection Latent Infection Transformation to cancerous cell Rapid release of new viruses from infecded cell caused cell death.The symptoms of the disease depend on which cells are killed Slow release of new viruses causes cell to remain alive and continue to produce new viruses for a prolonged period of time. Delay between infection and symptoms. Virus is present in the cell without harming the cell. Symptoms beging when the virus begins actively replication and causes cell death when new viruses exit the cell. Certain viruses insert their genetic information into host cell chromosomes. Some carry oncogenes (cancer – causing genes) that are active in the host cell. Some disrupt the functioning of the host cell's genes that regulate cell division, causing the cell to become cancerous. Viruses and Disease 1.Can cause cell damage as they leave the host cell; the cell damage causes the symptoms 2. Can cause cancer when they insert themselves into host chromosome or by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Genital Herpes Cause virus Herpes simplex -type 1 (HSV-1) – usually associated with fever blisters + cold sores -type 2 (HSV-2) – usually causes similar sores in genital area Symptoms (if there are symptoms) first may have a tingling or itching sensation (called the prodrome) 2-20 days after contact blisters of fluid filled sores 1st attack lasts about 3 wk s (1wk-4wks) can use ointments to relieve the pain will go away whether treated or not Also cause cancer hen they insert themselves into host chromosome o r by producing factors that affect the host genes that regulate cell division Viruses and Disease 34 Genital Warts in about half (50%) of people with herpes: blisters reform periodically usually at times of stress because the virus moves the the sacral ganglia of the spinal cord not affected by the human immune system here can be reawakened + cause new sores -maybe 2x month or 1x in 10yrs -NO CURE Genital Herpes spread by contact of infected and uinfected surface no sex while blister present or during prodrome or for at least 10 days after blisters are gone use a condom at all timeseven when no blisters are present erpes can be spread to newborn if deliver vaginally while virus is present if infant's infection is in liver and central nervous system-can be fatal Diagnosis Examination of sores Culture fluid from sores Blood test for antibodies in women-Pap test Treatment -Syptoms only Acyclovir (Zovirax):-reduce severity of first outbreak and reduce frequency of recurrences Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) usually transmitted by sexual contact 50-70% of those who have sex with an infected person will get them more likely if on the pill or pregnant or uncircumsized appear 1-2 months after contact, maybe longer appearance of growth on dry areas- brownish on moist areas-pink they grow may cause foul-smelling discharge may itch -warts can be removed by: 1. freezing 2. burning 3. laser 4. treated with a chemical (podophyllin) that is painted onleft 4 hrs. washed away warts fall off * virus may remain Diagnosis appearance of wart in women-Pap test can look for DNA of HPV inside cells 35 Genital Warts *ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK OF CERVICAL CANCER -HPV found in 90% of women with cervical cancer There is now a vaccine against HPV and, therefore, against cervical cancer *ASSOCIATED WITH AND INCREASED RISK OF CANCER OF P ENIS 36 BODY DEFENSES Innate Responses – Nonspecific Physical and Chemical Barriers Adaptive defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: 1. Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) 2. Has memory for specific antigens previously encountered Lymphocyte encounters antigen Immune responses have 1.Specificity: Specific for particular â€Å"invader† (antigen) Antigen = a large molecule (not recognized as belonging in the body) that triggers an immune response Ex: antigen can be on the surface of a bacterium or virus etc. ; can be a bacterial toxin Your body cells have markers (molecules) that label them as belonging in your body Each lymphocyte has receptors on its surface that recognize a specific antigen When that antigen is present, it causes that lymphocyte to divide many times Effector cells Memory cells Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same an tigen Third line of defense: Specific defenses (directed at specific target): The immune system: Immune system is 1. specific for a particular ? invader? antigen) 2. has memory for specific antigen previously encountered Creates an army of lymphocytes specialized to attack that antigen These are called Effector cells 2. Memory: have memory for specific antigen previously encountered Memory lymphocytes remain to cause a quick response the next time the same antigen is encountered 37 STEPS IN IMMUNE RESPONSE 1. Threat: foreign cell or molecule enters body 2. Detection Macrophage: detects invader engulfs invader digests invader 3. Alert: Macrophage places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane attached to a self marker presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell 4.Alarm: Helper T Cell: after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells turns â€Å"on† both lines of immune response to fight t hat specific antigen by activating B cells and T cells 5. Build specific defense (clonal selection) Lymphocyte encounters antigen Effector cells attack specific target Memory cells remain and provide a quick response in subsequent exposure to same antigen 6. Defense A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. nfected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) 7. Continued surveillance memory cells remain 8. Withdrawal of forces After antigen has been destroyed suppressor T cells shut down the immune response Effector cells cells Memory 38 A. Antibody-mediated immune response Effector B cell = Plasma cell Plasma cells secrete antibodies Targets = antigens outside of cell or on surface of cell An antibody is a Y-shaped protein designed to recognize a specific antigen Antibodies help defend against a specific antigen Can only work against antigens that are free in blood Antibodies bind to the antigen Antibodies are secreted by plasma cells (effector B cells) Ways that Antibodies can Work 1.Neutralization – bind to antigen prevent virus from being able to enter host cell inactivate toxin 2. Agglutination and precipitation -clumps â€Å"invaders† together makes it easier for other cells to engulf them 3. Activation of complement system complement (system) is a group of proteins that pokes holes causes â€Å"invader† to burst B. Cell-mediated immune response Effector T cell = cytotoxic T cell Cytotoxic T cells kill foreign cells by causing them to burst Targets = cells bearing antigens (any cells recognized as foreign: e. g. infected cell, bacteria, cancer cell) Cytotoxic T cells secrete proteins called perforins that poke holes in â€Å"invaderâ₠¬  or foreign cells, causing them to burst 39Cells Involved In the Immune System Macrophage: an antigen presenting cells engulfs and digests antigens places a piece of consumed antigen on its plasma membrane presents the antigen to a helper T cell activates the helper T cell B Cells: T Cells: Helper T Cell: the â€Å"on† switch for both lines of immune response after activation by a macrophage, it divides, forming effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells activate B cells and T cells Cytotoxic T cell: (effector T cell) responsible for cellmediated immune responses when activated by helper T cell, it divides to form effector cytotoxic T cells and memory cytotoxic T cells destroys cellular targets, such as virusinfected body cells, bacteria, fungi, arasites, and cancer cells Suppressor T cell: the â€Å"off† switch for immune responses suppresses the activity of B cells and T cells after the foreign cell or molecule has been successfully destroyed involved in an tibodymediated responses when activated by helper T cells, it divides to form plasma cells and memory cells Plasma Cell: effector in antibodymediated response secretes antibodies specific to the invader Memory Cells: responsible for memory of immune system generated by B cells or any type of T cell during an immune response enable quick and efficient response on subsequent exposures of the antigen may live for years 40 AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Caused by HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV infects T cells T cells become HIV factories Organism enters body Macrophage detects it HIV kills helper T cells so THIS doesn’t happen Activates a helper T cell Stimulates division of cytotoxic T cells (attack foreign cells) As helper T cell numbers drop, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to infection Stimulates B cells to form antibodies (destroys the infectious organism) 41